JRSSEM 2022, Vol. 02, No. 5, 687 – 707

E-ISSN: 2807 - 6311, P-ISSN: 2807 - 6494

10.36418/jrssem.v2i05.326 https://jrssem.publikasiindonesia.id/index.php/jrssem

EXAMINING FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE IN ABOLISHING

SEX TRAFFICKING CASE STUDY: SEX TRAFFICKING IN

THAILAND

Naeli Fitria

Department of International Relations, Universitas Pertamina, Indonesia

e-mail: naeli.fitria@universitaspertamina.ac.id

*Correspondence: naeli.fitria@universitaspertamina.ac.id

Submitted

: 20 November 2022

Revised

: 02 December 2022

Accepted

: 09 December 2022

Abstract: Debate between feminist perspectives has become contested both in academic sphere

and policy implementation in addressing sex trafficking. Human rights aspects remain critical either

to liberate or to abolish sex trafficking. Radical feminist perspective defends the argument to

eliminate sex trafficking due to the existence of physical abuses and sexual harassment within the

sex industry and the cycle of sex trafficking. Contrastingly, liberal feminist also making efforts in

liberating the rights of women to seek a job to be sex workers due to women’s autonomy and

rational choice as well as the influence of global capitalist system. Such debates, furthermore,

cannot be distinguished from the influence of the rooted theories, for instance, postcolonial

feminism which argue that sex trafficking is inevitable notably for the colonised countries since the

women are triggered to seek for decent income through migrating to another country. In addition,

poststructuralist feminism highlighted the crucial point of women’s autonomy and rights. This

study argues that the attempts to abolish sex trafficking and prostitution remain relevant to date

since women who work as sex workers should be acknowledged as the victims of sex trafficking.

Taking sex trafficking and prostitution in Thailand as the case study has eventually found that social

norms and corrupted officials have become major barriers in combating sex trafficking and

prostitution until recently. The government strategies together with the regional efforts hereby the

Association of Southeast Asia Nations (ASEAN) in combating the crime of sex trafficking have

shown that challenges ahead remain exist.

Keywords: Human trafficking; ASEAN; Thailand; Feminism.

Naeli Fitria | 688

INTRODUCTION

The consequence of global economic

development has resulted in the black side

of global migration. The gap between

developed and developing countries has

obviously shaped and affected economic

inequality around the world. Poverty has

revealed as a reflection of the inability of

countries to provide employment field for

their people. Such reason eventually forced

poor people to generate better income by

going abroad.

One of the most compelling reasons

why people migrate is due to the

availability of job offers in another country.

Interestingly, such reason has reflected the

argument of Post-Colonial theory in

addressing global migration and its impact.

As the rooted cause, the link between

global migration and capitalism is

undeniable since the Third World or

developing countries which the majority

are colonised countries become the victims

of global capitalism. Aiming to sustain

economic development around the globe,

the Post-Colonial theory also argues that

global capitalist system has eventually

created a new space for sex trafficking

crime to occur. Such crime, unfortunately,

has become the most appealing fields to

generate income which is preserved by the

operation of the sex industry. Sex

trafficking has been utilised as the source

for recruiting and transporting people to

work in the sex industry mainly prostitution.

In addition, the operation of both sex

trafficking and prostitution have become

trajectories for gross human rights

violations.

Furthermore, Post-Colonial theory as a

rooted theory in addressing sex trafficking

also cannot be separated from the

contested debate in feminism. Women as

subject and targeting party of sex

industries have suffered significant human

rights abuses over the decade. Hence, two

influential feminist perspectives, for

instance, radical feminists and liberal

feminist have involved in an unresolved

debate in addressing sex trafficking in

human rights domain. Liberal feminist

defends themselves through echoing

freedom of choice for women to work as

sex workers. Yet, for radical feminist

abolishing prostitution and sex trafficking is

the best way to decrease the number of

gross human rights violations against

women including the practice of women

subordination.

However, critiques also contested

between those two points of view in

addressing sex trafficking issue. The main

critique of liberal feminist against radical

feminist is that the criminalisation and

abolitionist prostitution are not a solution

for women. They also argue that there is no

one country in this world which immune

from sex trafficking and prostitution since

those fields are provide women with more

significant income. Therefore, women who

work as sex workers need to be respected

as other common professions.

Interestingly, there is a constituent between

liberal feminist and the Poststructuralism

feminist in addressing the notion regarding

autonomy or freedom of choice for women

to migrate and become sex workers.

Poststructuralism feminist attempt to

examine broader perspective notably in

criticising liberal feminist not to solely

689 | Examining Feminist Perspective In Abolishing Sex Trafficking Case Study: Sex Trafficking

In Thailand

apply freedom of choice idea to legalise sex

workers and prostitution. This perspective

acknowledged that the freedom of women

to migrate to what liberal feminist argue is

acceptable in order to seek more decent

employment. However, the freedom is not

tolerable when they migrate to work in the

sex industry. Such reason furthermore is

reiterated due to sexual exploitation and

other women’s rights violations to occur

notably in the cycle of sex trafficking and

prostitution.

One of the most prominent scholars of

liberal feminist is Kathy Miriam. Her

contribution for the liberal feminist

literature is the concept of “Sexual

Contract” which explain that women who

work as sex workers are legal and once they

agree to work in the sex industry, they

oblige to their employer. Such phenomenal

notion also reiterated that through sexual

contract women are conscious and

voluntary of working as sex workers.

Notwithstanding the critique of liberal

feminists, radical feminist also points out

the main idea of liberal feminists in

struggling of legalising prostitution has

resulted in preserving women

subordination and men domination in the

practice of it. One of the most influential

radical feminist scholars namely Sheila

Jeffreys argues that prostitution and sex

trafficking are two forms of human rights

violations against women.

From those aforementioned heated

debates, it is argued that despite sex

industry has become a strategic avenue for

generating income both for countries and

sex workers, the human rights violations in

the cycle of sex trafficking is urgent to be

tackled seriously. The gap which uncovered

is that the quarrel over human rights realm

is unequivocal mainly for radical feminist

perspective. In order to enhance the

position in abolishing prostitution and sex

trafficking, radical feminist has to reiterate

the position that giving freedom for

women to be sex workers means not

appreciating and respecting their rights.

Instead, human rights must encompass all

aspects of women including release them

from the sex industry and prostitution

crime because they are oppressed and

become the victims.

Furthermore, since sex trafficking has

resulted in a gross number of victims in the

world, one of the most vulnerable regions

hereby Southeast Asia has become a centre

of international critical attention as the

most susceptible region which prone to

human trafficking related to sexual

exploitation. Due to its poverty, the

majority of people become the victims of

sex trafficking in Southeast Asia. With

approximately 79% of women are trafficked

for sexual exploitation purpose (UNODC,

2018). Particularly in Southeast Asia,

255.000 or 1/3 globally represent women

who become the victims of human

trafficking for prostitution (Holliday, 2016).

Such evidence has become a compelling

reason for Southeast Asia to be examined

further in this research.

As one of the most favourable

countries of destination for prostitution

and sex tourism, Thailand will be examined

as a case study. Thailand remains in Tier 2

which means that this country remains

deficient in implementing policy in

abolishing prostitution and sex trafficking

as well as has become a country of

destination for prostitution in Southeast

Naeli Fitria | 690

Asia. The methodology which will be

utilised to obtain the data is sourced from

government official reports, media and

academic literature. In addition, this

research also using qualitative method in

examining the literature. It is essential to

use qualitative method in this study since it

will be explained by words or verbal

interpretation and examining the

effectiveness of the theory in the policy

implementation through case study,

hereby sex trafficking and prostitution in

Thailand.

Key findings of this research, for

instance, 1). The rooted theory of post-

colonial and poststructuralist feminist

cannot be denied in affecting the contested

debate of feminist perspective notably

related to radical feminist perspective in

abolishing sex trafficking both in academic

sphere and in the policy implementation,

2). The delicate progress of Thailand and

the Association of Southeast Asia Nations

(ASEAN) as a prominent regional

organization has reflected that abolishing

sex trafficking remains a priority agenda of

the Southeast Asian region in struggling for

women’s right, 3). Local norms of the

society and corrupted officials have

become two crucial factors in abolishing

prostitution in Thailand. Therefore, such

cases will be discussed in more detail.

Thus, this research will examine the

radical feminist perspective and its

compatibility in the elimination of

prostitution in decreasing the victims of sex

trafficking. This research will be divided into

six chapter. The first chapter will explain the

background of the study. The second

chapter will discuss sex trafficking debates

between liberal feminists and radical

feminists. Then, steps in abolishing sex

trafficking will be further elaborated in the

third chapter. The fourth chapter

furthermore will examine sex trafficking in

Thailand as the case study. Chapter five will

critically assessed the radical feminist

perspective in affecting policy

implementation in Southeast Asia notably

in Thailand in abolishing sex trafficking.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research that the author

conducted uses a qualitative research

methodology. Qualitative research

methodology is an approach used to be

able to find and understand a meaning

(Bakry, 2015). This qualitative methodology

appears to understand a phenomenon or

social issue that exists in society. So, this

methodology is explained as a method

used to explain or find answers to a

phenomenon or issue that occurs in

society. Another opinion explains that

qualitative research methodology is

research that is explained using a natural

point of view (based on facts) and is also

interpretive which aims to explain existing

phenomena (Bakry, 2015). The sources

used in qualitative research methodology

led to case studies, individual experiences,

interviews, observations, and so on.

Research methodology as research

that requires the researcher to go directly

into the social environment where the

subjects involved in the research are

located (Bakry, 2015). So that the research

conducted requires the researcher to

participate in the existing social dynamics

to get answers to the phenomena that are

happening in the social process. This is

691 | Examining Feminist Perspective In Abolishing Sex Trafficking Case Study: Sex Trafficking

In Thailand

considered by Fiona Devine as a

differentiator against quantitative research

methodologies which do not allow or do

not require researchers to go directly into

the field. So here the author wants to

emphasize that the qualitative research

methodology used in this research is the

author's way of answering research

questions that the author raised. So that

later the author will describe the facts

described based on existing sources. So

that the arguments formed will rely on the

existing facts and explain the answers to

the existing problems using the evidence

that the author uses.

Theoretical Framework

This research uses Radical Feminist as

its research framework. A starting point,

radical feminist reveal with their

perspective. Radical feminist scholar, such

as (Pateman, 2016) claims that men

dominate the majority of the employment

position and at the same time women

acquire fewer opportunity on that matter.

Women subordination also shaped

patriarchy within the working environment

in which turn out women intimidation

related to sexual abuses (Pateman, 2016).

Such a problem has also led women to

become sex workers and trapped in

prostitution (Pateman, 2016). In addition,

(Penttinen, 2008) observed that women in

society are framed to be subordinated

because of their second-class role in the

family and systemic patriarchy. Women

also become inferior in generating income

from their works (Penttinen, 2008).

Other radical feminist scholars, for

instance, (Jeffreys, 2008) also argue that

prostitution is an avenue for men in

dominating power against women in which

it affects hazardous effects for women. She

also highlighted that prostitution creates a

detrimental effect on women due to men's

authority to access women's body for the

sake of men's pleasure. (Jeffreys, 2008)

highlighted that prostitution also means

that such practice reflects women's

inequity. Besides, women in prostitution

practice become disadvantaged because

their rights such as emotions and

psychological conditions are deprived and

unnoticed (Jeffreys, 2008).

Sex Trafficking in Thailand

Thailand has become an international

attention for its contentious sex industry.

The running and growing number of

prostitution have triggered this country to

be a country of destination for sex

trafficking crimes. Historically, the increase

of the sex industry in Thailand was

beginning when Thailand became a place

of leisure for the U.S. army during the

Vietnam War. The municipalities become

more compelling for women from the

urban area to move due to poor economic

condition. Then, in 1980 Thailand faced a

boost sex entertainment which profitable

for the country (Reyes, 2015).

Furthermore, it has become

undeniable since Thailand has become a

significant tourist destination in Southeast

Asia. (Bernstein & Shih, 2014) claimed that

tourism to date remains a cornerstone for

economic growth in Southeast Asia. The

attractiveness of beaches, authentic sites,

the harmonious of local people as well as

conducive political situation are the key

factors which have led Thailand to become

an ultimate tourism place for many years

Naeli Fitria | 692

(Bernstein & Shih, 2014). In addition, the

triumph of Thailand as the most favourite

tourism place in the world is also supported

by infrastructure development in the

country. (Bernstein & Shih, 2014) observed

that the public amenities, for instance,

international airport, luxury and world-class

hotel, English sign direction across the

cities and less criminality are the most

essential factors for boosting tourism in

Thailand.

The expansion of the sex industry and

prostitution in Thailand, moreover, has led

to the crime of sex trafficking to occur in

this country. The cycle of sex trafficking

itself also become worse due to the human

trafficking which involving transnational

organized crimes in Southeast Asia.

Therefore, several aspects, for instance,

economic, social and security within the

region reveal as a severe threat not only for

the country but also the stability of the

Southeast Asian region.

Interestingly, the cycle of sex

trafficking in Thailand has caused by mass

migration of migrant workers within the

Southeast Asian region. Immigrants

coming from states in which close based on

geographical proximity, for instance,

Cambodia, Laos and Myanmar move to

Thailand aiming to gain more decent

employment. Unfortunately, the most

available field of job offering in Thailand is

highly related to the sex industry (Sallee,

2012).

More significant economic

opportunity and delicate community

restriction are two main components which

attracts women in Thailand to work in the

sex industry (Niamvanichkul, 2013). The

number of hotels and leisure places provide

sex workers to boost their income. The

practice of this illegal prostitution is

through the request from the hotel guests

then the prostituted women will be

available for them (Niamvanichkul, 2013).

The more harsh reality is also proven by the

data which show that approximately

425.500 persons currently being victims of

human trafficking in Thailand (Yi, 2017). In

addition, the majority of them are women

from neighbouring countries from Laos

and Cambodia who work in the sex industry

(Yi, 2017).

Furthermore, the common practice of

sex trafficking crime, for instance,

confiscated documents, debt bondage,

fraud and physical violence also occur in

the cycle of prostitution in Thailand. It is

evidenced by the experience of a woman

from Uzbekistan who was guaranteed by

her neighbour to work in a decent job in

Thailand. She confessed that she did not

understand the detailed regarding her job

until she approved the offer then flew to

Thailand. Upon her arrival in Thailand, her

documents were confiscated and the

traffickers violated her rights by forcing her

to work in the sex industry (Kobler, 2017).

From such evidence, it is apparent that the

crime of sex trafficking in Thailand has a

contribution from the broader scale of the

world. In addition, the cycle also

commenced with the closest neighbour.

Due to the high number of people who

migrate to Thailand, this country has

become the country of destination for sex

trafficking crimes. Interestingly,

(Niamvanichkul, 2013) argue that Thailand

social norms and the ability of men to

purchase sex services, as well as the loose

of law enforcement, has attracted many

693 | Examining Feminist Perspective In Abolishing Sex Trafficking Case Study: Sex Trafficking

In Thailand

tourists to come and experience sex in

prostitution are across Thailand. It is also

related to the income which can be

generated by women who work as sex

workers in Thailand (Niamvanichkul, 2013).

For such reasons, I would argue that

Thailand has a complicated situation in

dealing with sex trafficking. On one side,

the sex workers are those who work to

attain more appropriate income, on the

other hand, the typical situation also

shaped the environment of prostitution to

be acceptable to operate in Thailand.

In relations to the above, the reality

which remains exist within the sex industry

in Thailand is sexual abuses against the sex

workers. The consequence of being

trafficking to the sex industry is being

oppressed. It is argued that the nature of

prostitution in Thailand is due to the ability

of wealthy men to buy sex services of

impoverished women because the men

acknowledged that they need money and

they must obey the request of men (Pulitzer

Center, 2009). Feminist scholar Catherine

MacKinnon also points out that the sexual

abuses against sex workers in Thailand is

due to the inadequate power between the

sex purchasers and the sex workers

(Pulitzer Center, 2009). Therefore, women

subordination is undoubtedly has become

an integral part of prostitution.

Efforts to Abolish Sex Trafficking in

Thailand Since Thailand has become a

country of destination for human

trafficking-related sex tourism and

prostitution, the reputation of Thailand

Government has become critical regarding

their efforts to combat this crime. When the

state is unable to resolve the problems

related to the eradication of human

trafficking, especially the sex trafficking, the

position and condition of the country will

potentially bring criticism and action from

the international community.

As one of the signatories of the

Palermo Protocol, Thailand has shown their

commitment to combat sex trafficking with

compliance to the international agreement.

Thailand became one of the 169 countries

which agreed to obey the protocol in

preventing, penalising the perpetrators and

safeguard the victims due to their

responsibility as receiving country

(Robinson et al., 2016). In addition, the

consequence of the operation of the sex

industry within the country has put

Thailand to become the centre of

international consideration related to the

implementation of the Palermo Protocol.

Palermo Protocol is undoubtedly has

become a significant milestone as a strong

instrument in encouraging international

cooperation in combating human

trafficking notably pertaining to sexual

exploitation. In order to strengthen the

obligation of the states, the Palermo

Protocol has put the priority on sex

trafficking crimes (Robinson et al., 2016).

Meanwhile, I would argue that the vague

point in the protocol prevails debatable

among the decision makers and lobbying

group. The debate arises due to the

distinction between human trafficking

related to labour and sexual oppression.

Therefore, every single signatory must obey

the law and tackle such crime to the

maximum level to decrease the number of

victims.

Thailand has been cautioned due to its

precarious status as a part of sex trafficking

crime. Thailand’s status in combating sex

Naeli Fitria | 694

trafficking is on Tier 2 Watch List which

means that this country is attempting to

abolish sex trafficking and prostitution, yet,

remain facing gross number of victims and

not compelling enough to show the

evidence (European Court of Auditors,

2017). In addition, the peak number of

human rights violations in Thailand

regarding sex trafficking has attracted

international scrutiny. The world leaders

also remain questioning the commitment

of Thailand in tackling this crucial problem

due to its low rank in achieving progress

based on the US Tier.

In the relations to the above, Thailand

government has expressed their serious

pledge in overcoming the situation and

respecting human rights in Southeast Asian

region. In this regard, Thailand government

has taken one step ahead by ratifying the

ASEAN Convention against Trafficking in

Persons, Especially Women and Children

(ACTIP) in July 2016 (Parameswaran, 2016).

This agreement in line with the primary

instrument hereby the Convention on

Transnational Organised Crime and the

Palermo Protocol and which also concern

on the prevention, protection and the

prosecution in tackling human trafficking

related to sexual exploitation (Segrave et

al., 2017). Such strong and legally binding

agreement aims to strengthen the

cooperation between ASEAN Member

States (AMS) in combating human

trafficking notably sex trafficking both for

women and children.

The significance of ACTIP itself remains

in progress as a reflection of ASEAN human

rights protection and promotion within the

region. The ACTIP was applied since March

2017, and it means that the improvement

regarding the implementation will be

gradual to date. However, (Gallagher,

2001), a specialist on human trafficking

argue that the Palermo Protocol has

remarked as a breakthrough and one step

ahead in addressing human trafficking

crimes related to sexual exploitation. She

also believes that notwithstanding its

shortcoming, it reflects a significant

development in setting international

regulation (Robinson et al., 2016).

Notwithstanding the implementation

of set instruments and agreement in the

international stage, Thailand government

also has undertaken several legal

instruments in order to combat the cycle of

sex trafficking. Abolishing sex trafficking

has passed an extended period in Thailand,

and it has become a chronicle in addressing

this grievous crime. It is proven by the fact

that in the national level, Thailand

government has tackled sex trafficking

through several developments of

regulations, for instance, 1928 Royal

Decree on Trafficking in Women and

Children, 1921 International Convention on

Trafficking of Women and Children

(Segrave et al., 2017). However, those set of

regulations have become obsolete due to

the growth of human rights violations, the

more severe condition of the sex industry

in Thailand and undetected the cycle of the

transnational organised crime.

After constant law enforcement during

70 years (Segrave et al., 2017), Thailand

government eventually expanded the

national law in order to attain more

efficacious effect in combating sex

trafficking. The development of the

national law of Thailand in dealing with sex

trafficking, such as, the Measures in

695 | Examining Feminist Perspective In Abolishing Sex Trafficking Case Study: Sex Trafficking

In Thailand

Prevention and Suppression of Trafficking

in Women and Children Act 1997 which

concern in targeting and punishing the

perpetrators. Then it was substituted with

the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act (ACTIP

Act) which much broader than sex

trafficking itself. This law also encompassed

all forms of human trafficking including

human rights violations against migrant

workers notably in the fisheries

manufacturing (Segrave et al., 2017).

Despite the above mentions law,

Thailand government to date has

undertaken major steps in overcoming and

tackling this problem. Several endeavours,

for instance, prevention, persecution and

protection of the victims are seriously

implemented.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Contribution to Radical Feminist

Perspective

The existing and perplexing debate in

international fora remains crucial for the

future of the sex trafficking problem. A

heated debate between radical feminist

perspective which concern in abolishing

prostitution and sex trafficking is still facing

a challenge from the liberal feminists view

which focuses on women liberation and

legalising prostitution and sex trafficking.

Yet, the gap between those two

perspectives exists between the ideal

stance and the implementation.

Sex trafficking as a consequence of

blind and black side of globalisation is

arguably has become an undeniable

profitable sector for the sex industry

worldwide. Data obtained by (Seckan,

2012) that since 2000 with approximately

29.210 USD have been generated from the

sex industry including the cycle of sex

trafficking and prostitution. Such

compelling income notably for countries

income has, however, resulted in the

detrimental effect on gross human rights

violations.

Several countries, for instance, New

Zealand, Australia, the Netherlands,

Germany and so on which legalised

prostitution (Bhattacharya, 2015) reflected

that sex trafficking has become the main

engine in contributing income for

sustaining economic growth in the country.

However, the reasons why those countries

attempt to liberalising sex trafficking as

what refers to the perspective of Liberal

feminist is vague since the source of the sex

workers who work in the prostitution and

sex industry are rooted from the sex

trafficking cycle (Blake, 2000). In addition,

the moral hazard which also created the

situation becomes worse is due to the

corruption by the officials.

In relations to the above, such betrayal

of the officials means that the country is

consciously violated the rights of women. It

is evidenced by the fact that the authority

or governments of the countries are

frequently not well informed regarding

statistical data even not alert to their

renown in the eyes of world leaders

(Seckan, 2012). I would argue that it has

also become unfortunate if the prostitution

and sex trafficking are not abolished

because the legalization of them means

that the corruption of the government is

also legal and permitted. Even though

liberal feminist defend that the rights of sex

workers will be well protected due to the

Naeli Fitria | 696

government supervision, it apparently does

not eliminate the abuses against the sex

workers. It is supervised, yet, the practice

remain occurs.

The most prominent radical feminist

scholar, Sheila Jeffreys, emphasises that the

decision made by the governments of

several countries in decriminalising

prostitution is not a solution to combat sex

trafficking (Jeffreys, 2008). Jeffreys’s ideal

perspective also reflects that the existing of

the sex industry means preserving

patriarchy value in women sub-ordination

regarding the demand of men in

purchasing sex services. Women’s rights

violations, for instance, sexual assault and

physical abuses remain to prevail when the

sex workers attempt to fight against the

need of the sex buyers notably the use of

contraception. For that reason, targeting

and penalising the sex purchasers are

essential strategies to undertake. (Cho,

Dreher and Neumayer, 2013) reported that

as a country which abolishes prostitution

and the sex industry, Sweden has

implemented a strict law in punishing the

sex buyers. The operation of the law namely

the Act on Prohibiting the Purchase of

Sexual Services was executed in 1999

(Blake, 2000). Such finding has shown that

since 2000 the number of prostitution has

been decreased in Sweden up to 50% from

2.500 prostitutions to 1500 (Cho, Dreher

and Neumayer, 2013). However, in this

particular case, instead of facing the

resistance from the society to caught and

warn the sex buyers within the prostitution

area, applying the law and strict regulations

in Sweden becomes the most effective

strategy in decreasing the demand and

making sex industry becomes less

attractive is effective. The law enforcement

in Sweden has depicted that national law

has power in punishing the sex buyers

through giving significant amount of fine.

This success also contributed by the police

officers who caught then penalise them.

Moreover, a complicated stance in

feminist debates in combating sex

trafficking is the “human rights” value. This

domain seems to unresolved debate.

Liberal feminist pleads for the idea that

being sex workers is a freedom of choice

and every person should respect that right.

Contrastingly, even though women

decided to be sex workers and working in

prostitution, human rights violations

including sexual abuses and physical force

remain to exist pertaining to women

discrimination when they cannot fulfil

men’s need. Legalizing prostitution at the

same time means smoothing the crime of

sex trafficking and the women

subordination within the sex industry

means that women are discriminated.

In relations to the above, I would argue that

human rights cannot be simplified merely

as a freedom of choice for women. The

explanation of the importance of human

rights in abolishing prostitution seems

rarely discussed. Criminalizing of sex

purchasers and the perpetrators including

brothels and pimps as well as treating sex

workers as victims is often misunderstood

as repression of human rights. However,

such argument apparently equivocal since

the sex trafficking and prostitution

themselves are obviously forms of human

rights violations.

As an additional point, I would suggest

that radical feminist perspective is possible

to be more appealing if the domain of

697 | Examining Feminist Perspective In Abolishing Sex Trafficking Case Study: Sex Trafficking

In Thailand

human rights has an unequivocal position.

The explanation should encompass all

aspects of protection of women because

endeavour to abolish prostitution and sex

trafficking also uphold human rights value

in respecting women’s dignity. One of the

most fundamental value is protecting

women’s chastity by avoiding them to be

sex workers. (Doezema, 2002) argue that

for the sake of protecting their honour and

virginity, women are conscious not to work

as sex workers. By working as prostituted

women, they are trapped in sub-ordination

and discriminated system which more

preserve men’s domination (Doezema,

2002).

Human rights realm will always be

contested and complicated because there

is no universal agreement in dealing with

prostitution and sex trafficking. However,

the attempts of the international

community through signing and ratifying

several influential conventions by all

accounts signify human rights protections

for women. Align with the Palermo

Protocol, the Convention on the

Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination

against Women as a part of principal

instrument in abolishing prostitution and

sex trafficking also aiming to respect

women’s pride and dignity (United Nations

General Assembly, 2017). Such passed

agreement urge all states to undertake all

possible strategies to combat sex

trafficking for sexual exploitation (United

Nations General Assembly, 2017).

Thus, the justifications mentioned

above are consequential for strengthening

stance against prostitution and sex

trafficking mainly pertaining to echoing

human rights value in protecting and

respecting women. In addition, several

explained strategies and the implications in

decreasing number of prostitution and sex

trafficking has shown that the abolishing of

such crimes has resulted in the positive

outcome.

Policy Implementation in Combating

Sex Trafficking

It is irrefutable that socio-cultural

factors contribute to the success of policy

implementation at the national level. As a

part of parties who ratified and

implemented the international agreement

in abolishing prostitution and sex

trafficking, the operational and

enforcement of the law in Thailand also

facing shortcoming and challenges. As a

paradise for tourism destination, Thailand

has served its best to entertain all the

tourists and foreigners. However, human

rights violations as a consequence of the

existence of the sex industry revealed and

threatened the rights of migrant workers

there.

The operation of the sex industry in

Thailand has attracted international

attention to take actions in combating sex

trafficking as the main lane in supplying sex

workers to work in the sex industry. One of

the major influential factors which has led

women in Thailand working in the

prostitution sector is the value of the

society. It is worth noting that prostitution

is acknowledged and permitted by the

society. Women in Thailand should have

self-esteem before they have a spouse

through prostituting themselves, so that,

they are capable of getting married

(Niamvanichkul, 2013). In addition, the

practice of the local norm in Thailand in

Naeli Fitria | 698

which women work as sex workers will be

paid if they can do their job accordingly, so

that, the society accepts them because they

are able to generate income for themselves

(Niamvanichkul, 2013). The situation also

becomes worse due to the practice of Mail

Order Brides in which the perpetrators

purchase the women to be sex workers and

remunerate the money to their parents and

retailers (Niamvanichkul, 2013). Therefore,

the local value remains challenging and

becomes a burden for policy

implementation.

In relations to the above, it apparently

that Thailand government will constantly

face friction with the local belief of women

self-esteem through prostituting them in

the sex industry. (Tarancon, 2013)

suggested that endeavours of Thailand

government in creating parent awareness

pertaining to the severe risk of prostitution

and sex trafficking should be maximised. In

addition, the role of media is absolutely

fundamental in echoing the consequence

of prostitution and sex trafficking especially

targeting young people as the audience. A

television program, for instance, “MTV’s

End Exploitation and Trafficking (EXIT) has

been transmitted across Thailand

(Tarancon, 2013). She also found that such

step remains protracted in creating a more

positive atmosphere to abolish sex

trafficking and prostitution. Therefore,

integrated cooperation both Thailand

government and local media should be

strengthened since press or media also

require freedom and protection from the

government in reporting the sex industry

and echoing justice message to the

international community.

Interestingly, the government of

Thailand is also reinforcing national law and

regulations by involving airlines. (Yi, 2017)

found that since Thailand has a position as

Tier 2 Watch List based on the government

performance in combatting human

trafficking for prostitution purposes,

Thailand government has bolstered their

commitment and cooperation. It is

evidenced by the strategy in echoing and

campaigning the consequence of human

trafficking by targeting the tourists. In

addition, warning and caution board

“Human Trafficking is Illegal and Destroys

Our Country” are also promulgated in the

airport mainly in Suvarnabhumi Airport as

the main gate to enter Thailand as well as

raising passenger awareness through the

in-flight video before landing in Thailand

(Yi, 2017).

In relations to the above, the airline has

become the central prevention doorway in

preventing people to be trafficked. (Patrick,

2018) observed that the campaign called

#EyesOpen created by the International Air

Transport Association (IATA) has been

spread in social media as a part of the

global effort in combating human

trafficking between stakeholders, airline

staffs and passengers. Such strategy seems

become a milestone and marked as one

step forward due to the role of airline and

flight staffs are crucial in avoiding

passengers who possibly are trapped to be

the victims of human trafficking as well as

protecting them from the feasibility of

deportation and criminal conviction.

Moreover, regarding the steps in

abolishing prostitution and combating

human trafficking, for instance, prevention,

protection and persecution, the Thailand

government’s performance remains

699 | Examining Feminist Perspective In Abolishing Sex Trafficking Case Study: Sex Trafficking

In Thailand

delicate. (Human Rights Watch, 2017)

reported that Thailand still deteriorated

concerning effective policy implementation

in abolishing prostitution and human

trafficking. The observation proves that

migrant workers in Thailand remain

experience violations and trafficking both

by the perpetrators and fraudulent

government officials. In addition, the

endeavours to end such kind of modern

slavery were prevail inadequate (Human

Rights Watch, 2017).

Another observation by (Human Rights

Watch, 2017) also revealed that migrant

workers feel scared in reporting their cases

to the officer. Such burden remains occur in

Thailand due to futile protection (Human

Rights Watch, 2017). Therefore, I would

argue that the protection scheme and

strategy formed by the government

apparently ideal and ambitious, yet, the

implementation and the field report remain

are contrastive. It might also be the

influence of the law enforcement personnel

and knowledge regarding protecting the

victims is unsupervised, or even they

neglect the above mention fact.

In terms of international agreement

compliance, the dynamic and instability

remain embedded in the real field. (Reyes,

2015) reported that the Thailand

government has obeyed the international

agreement namely 1996 Prevention and

Suppression of Prostitution Act to abolish

the prostitution and sex entertainment. The

authority penalises the brothels for 20.200

baht ($555), and they will be detained up to

ten years. Heated debates also occur

among the government in order to

decriminalised both sex workers and sex

purchasers (Reyes, 2015). However, there is

no agreement from the debate. Yet, the

government remain to abolish prostitution

and at the same time, nothing can control

the expansion of the sex industry and sex

entertainment in this country (Reyes, 2015).

In addition, (Gugić, 2014) the shortcoming

of targeting the purchasers and the

perpetrators also due to the connection

between them with the family members of

the sex workers or victims who benefited

the income. Therefore, this more complex

cycle of sex trafficking in Thailand has

reflected the undeniable factors from the

closest people around the women or sex

workers. This tranquil reality also

apparently will become a significant barrier

for the policy implementation except if the

police officers are able to act forcefully

even though its related to family members.

Therefore, the operation and

implementation of Thailand government as

explained above remain to require more

critical assessment. The real condition of

victims and the cycle of sex trafficking and

prostitution in Thailand has put this country

in more serious human rights violations. In

addition, the examination of the human

rights condition within the region of

Southeast Asia since the sequence and lane

of the perpetrators not merely exist inside

the country but also outside.

In examining the existence of sex

trafficking and prostitution in Thailand, I

would suggest that the influence of the

rooted theory, for instance, post-

colonialism and poststructuralism has

shaped an argument that this crime is

inevitable. Migrating to another country, in

this case Thailand, for the sake of getting

decent income and better employment has

become a characteristic of women

Naeli Fitria | 700

originated from colonised countries. It is

evidenced by the fact that

poststructuralism theory highlights that it is

common for women to do so since they

experienced suppression due to

colonialism as their countries historical

background and discrimination (Hinger,

2010). In addition, I would argue that

abolishing the sex trafficking and

prostitution in Thailand which remain

highly essential will still face friction.

Radical feminist understanding in

attempting to abolish such crimes will face

continuously face unresolved cycle notably

when it needs to be implemented

accordingly in the field.

In the relations to the above, efforts in

abolishing sex trafficking also will

encounter the hegemony of global

economic capitalism which resulted in

preserving the sex industry itself. It is

proven by the fact that sex trafficking is a

form of new imperialism in which poverty

cannot be seen as a single factor which

triggered women to work as sex workers. It

is even more is acknowledged as a normal

impact of global capitalist system (Reinares,

2014). Therefore, I would suggest that the

correlation with post colonialism view’s in

addressing sex trafficking should put into

consideration and concern to create more

implementable strategy in abolishing sex

trafficking.

Human Rights Development in

Abolishing Sex Trafficking in Southeast

Asia

It is argued that the 1948 Universal

Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) has

become a referral instrument for the

implementation of human rights around

the world. It is also often assumed that

human right is possible to be universal or

culturally relative which is rooted from local

values and norms. Yet, it should be agreed

that in abolishing prostitution and sex

trafficking which resulted in gross human

rights violations the perception of human

rights should be universal. In international

fora, debates in addressing human rights

cases prevail exist. Therefore, it is

indispensable to scrutinise the different

capacity building of the countries in dealing

with this misfortune.

Prostitution and sex trafficking in

Thailand which has become an

international spotlight is arguably because

of the powerless and protracted

development of human rights in Southeast

Asia. To date, with approximately only four

countries, for instance, Indonesia, Malaysia,

the Philippines and Thailand have a

national human rights institution

(aseanhrmech.org, 2007). I would criticize

that such a milestone depicted the reality

that Southeast Asian remain in ongoing

progress to be settled in implementing

human rights value in the region. This

development apparently also demands

stronger commitment from other member

states due to the urgency of human rights

protection. It is because the major influence

country, for instance, Singapore and Brunei

Darussalam are not taking a part to be

solemnly combating transnational

organised crimes. The circumstances,

however, has reflected that upholding

human rights body within national

boundaries for the rest of ASEAN member

states remain not necessary notably for

those aforementioned two major countries.

For that reason, it seems slightly common

701 | Examining Feminist Perspective In Abolishing Sex Trafficking Case Study: Sex Trafficking

In Thailand

for the countries which do not respect

human rights as one of the caused human

rights violations prevail exist within the

region.

In dealing with human trafficking issue

particularly sex trafficking and sexual

exploitation within Southeast Asian

boundaries, the human rights body namely

ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on

Human Rights (AICHR) has become a

breakthrough for human rights

development in ASEAN. AICHR which was

established in 2009 has reflected the

progress of ASEAN’s commitment to

tackling human trafficking problem

seriously (aichr.org, 2012). As a part of the

strong commitment in combating sex

trafficking cycle in Southeast Asia, AICHR

has pioneered the ASEAN Convention

Against Trafficking in Persons (ACTIP)

Especially Women and Children which

already entry into force in 2015 (ASEAN

Secretariat, 2017).

Moreover, it is argued also that the

compelling point of ACTIP is due to its

legally binding instrument. (Yusran, 2018)

points out that the creation of ACTIP should

be regionally since its dealing with

transnational organized crimes in the

region. Such a way is also undertaken in

order to strengthen the cooperation and

consensus as the “ASEAN Way” to be

enforced accordingly. Therefore, to

implement effective and targeted policies

and agreement, ACTIP is designed to

ensure that all ASEAN member states

comply with and adhere to the prevailing

rules and respect the promotion and

protection of human rights in the region.

Another interesting value from ACTIP

is because this legally binding agreement

has reflected the strategy in abolishing

human trafficking notably for sexual

exploitation. (Yusran, 2018) argue that

ACTIP is an agreement under two main

umbrella of ASEAN that is Human Rights

and Security. Reflecting that this agreement

will serve as a guard for targeting and

punishing the perpetrators while at the

same time undergoing functions as well to

protect victims of human trafficking. In

addition, this progressive regional legally

binding agreement has also become a

translation of embodiment of international

agreement along with the United Nations

Convention against Transnational

Organized Crime and the TIP Protocol due

to the constant growth of the crimes as well

as the victims of human trafficking in

Southeast Asia (Yusran, 2018). However,

such milestone which has been achieved by

the ASEAN apparently becomes a

significant endeavour of ASEAN in

bolstering its bargaining power in the

international stage. Such reason is due to

the insignificance of ASEAN’s power in

international fora and its slow progress in

human rights development.

The more unequivocal advancement of

ACTIP also proven in its operation of the

instrument. It is proven by the distinction

made in the agreement which altered with

the TIP Protocol to merely urge the

signatory states to deem in giving support

and facilitation for the victim protection. It

has been transformed into more clear

instruction that the states must compel the

agreement to take care of the human

trafficking victims (Yusran, 2018).

Notwithstanding the progress which

has been achieved by ASEAN in designing

ACTIP, the protracted process of ratifying

Naeli Fitria | 702

and implementing the ACTIP remain

questionable. I would argue that the

constant movement of other ASEAN

member states is because of the influence

of AICHR’s role as an overarching body of

human rights in ASEAN. In one side, AICHR

has moved one step forward to the

promotion and protection of human rights.

On the other hand, (Munro, 2011) points

out that unfortunately AICHR only becomes

an institution in which the mandate merely

to set the guidelines and not able to receive

a report or complaint of human rights

violations.

In relations to the above reason, it

apparently that the coverage realm of

AICHR in enforcing human rights remain

limited. It is also affected due to the

character of ASEAN namely non-

interference. The style that reflects the

value to respect the sovereignty of other

countries precisely in the realm of its

practice becomes a major obstacle mainly

in dealing with human rights problems.

(Yusran, 2018) points out that the loose

point of ASEAN in preserving such value

has resulted in a more vulnerable situation

of human rights development due to each

member state should solve their domestic

problem individually.

Thus, shortcomings mentioned above

of the ASEAN human rights body notably

AICHR has reflected that the further major

change and improvements should be done

in order to address human rights problems

in Southeast Asia accordingly.

CONCLUSIONS

The contribution of two influential

feminist perspectives both liberal feminist

and radical feminist has affected the

policymakers around the world in

addressing sex trafficking problem.

Contested debate remains exist due to the

dispute concerning human rights value

either to echo freedom of choice for

women to be sex workers or abolish the sex

industry itself which has trapped a high

number of women to be the victims of sex

trafficking.

Liberal feminist perspective which

struggle for women’s rights to be sex

workers is apparently vague since the

practice of prostitution has resulted in

sexual abuses against women. In addition,

the operation of prostitution itself means

preserving women subordination and men

domination. The rational choice of women

to work in the sex industry also becomes

the primary argument of liberal feminist.

The rooted theory, for instance,

postcolonial feminism which highlighted

that women originated from colonised

countries are inevitable to migrate and face

the cycle of sex trafficking since they

situation which embedded the country has

forced them to seek for decent work. In

addition, poststructuralist feminist also

countering liberal feminist perspective in

which seeing freedom of women to be the

sex workers. The autonomy of women has

been misused due to the sexual abuses and

physical violence which exist both in the

cycle of sex trafficking and prostitution.

Radical feminist furthermore has

attempted to echo the rights of women to

escape from the prostitution and the cycle

of sex trafficking. Radical feminist has

achieved significant movement

internationally through influencing the

debate and lobbying in the international

703 | Examining Feminist Perspective In Abolishing Sex Trafficking Case Study: Sex Trafficking

In Thailand

for a which resulted in the agreed

international agreement namely the

Palermo Protocol.

The Global Alliance against Trafficking

in Women (GATW) has influenced countries

in the world to combat sex trafficking and

to abolish prostitution.

Moreover, the implementation of the policy

in the country which abolishes sex

trafficking and prostitution is apparently

challenging. Taking Thailand as the case

study, the deficient of this country has

revealed since the local norms accept and

acknowledge that women who work as sex

workers are normal. In addition, a more

severe condition which occurs is that the

perpetrators and the family of the sex

workers have a connection in benefiting

income from their job. Regarding

protection and persecution, Thailand has

shown that the law enforcement is still

loose.

As a part of the country in Southeast

Asia in which this region prone to be the

most vulnerable area of sex trafficking,

Thailand has complied with the regional

agreement namely the ACTIP. This

milestone of the ASEAN human rights

development has reflected its commitment

to align with the Palermo Protocol.

However, the real condition of protracted

progress of ASEAN mainly AICHR has

obviously shown that protection and

promotion of human rights in this region

remain premature.

Therefore, the more appropriate

strategy along with the goal of radical

feminist in abolishing sex trafficking is

urgently required. The suggestion for

Thailand government is to cooperate

stronger with relevant stakeholders,

increasing funding to protect and promote

human right both in national and regional

level as well as educating local people to

understand the dangers of sex trafficking

and stronger law enforcement in penalising

the perpetrators through collaborating

with airlines and harbour. Thus, it would be

more appealing for further research if the

position of radical feminist in abolishing sex

trafficking will be suitable for the

implementation in real life. Further research

also needs to positioning unequivocal

stance, so that, the reasons for abolishing

sex trafficking will be unquestionable.

REFERENCES

aichr.org (2012) ‘A Brief History of the

ASEAN Intergovernmental

Commission on Human Rights

(AICHR)’. Available at:

http://aichr.org/about/.

Andrijasevic, R. (2010) Migration, Agency

and Citizenship in Sex Trafficking. New

York: Palgrave Macmillan.

ASEAN Secretariat (2017) ASEAN

Welcomes Entry into Force of ACTIP.

Available at: http://asean.org/asean-

welcomes-entry-into-force-of-actip/

(Accessed: 17 July 2018).

aseanhrmech.org (2007) ASEAN Four

Hailed as an Inspiration to the Region.

Available at:

http://www.aseanhrmech.org/news/a

sean-four-hailed-as-inspiration-to-

region.html.

Beran, K. (2012) ‘Revisiting the Porstitution

Debate: Uniting Liberal and Radical

Feminism in Pursuit of Policy Reform’,

Naeli Fitria | 704

Law and Inequality, 30(19), pp. 1–50.

Bernstein, E. (2012) ‘Carceral politics as

gender justice? The “traffic in women”

and neoliberal circuits of crime, sex,

and rights’, Theory and Society, 41, pp.

233–359. doi: 10.1007/sll.

Bernstein, E. and Shih, E. (2014) ‘The erotics

of authenticity: Sex trafficking and

“Reality Tourism” in Thailand’, Social

Politics, 21(3), pp. 430–460. doi:

10.1093/sp/jxu022.

Bhattacharya, R. (2015) 15 Countries

Around The World That Have

Legalized Prostitution. Available at:

https://www.scoopwhoop.com/inothe

rnews/countries-with-legal-

prostitution/#.owg9igsf6 (Accessed:

24 July 2018).

Butler, C. N. (2013) ‘A Critical Race Feminist

Perspective on Prostitution & Sex

Trafficking in America’, Yale Journal of

Law {&} Feminism, 27(1). Available at:

http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/yj

lf%5Cnhttp://digitalcommons.law.yale

.edu/yjlf/vol27/iss 1/3.

Cavalieri, S. (2011) ‘Between Victim and

Agent: A Third-Way Feminist Account

of Trafficking for Sex Work’, Indiana

Law Journal, p. ; 86(4):1410-1458. doi:

10.1525/sp.2007.54.1.23.

Cho, S. Y., Dreher, A. and Neumayer, E.

(2013) ‘Does Legalized Prostitution

Increase Human Trafficking?’, World

Development. Elsevier Ltd, 41(1), pp.

67–82. doi:

10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.023.

Dempsey, M. M. (2009) ‘Sex Trafficking and

Criminalization: in Defense of Feminist

Abolitionism’, (1729), pp. 1729–1779.

Diep, H. (2004) ‘We Pay- The Economic

Manipulation of International and

Domestic Laws to Sustain Sex

Trafficking’, 2(2). doi: 10.3868/s050-

004-015-0003-8.

Doezema, J. (2002) ‘Who gets to choose?

Coercion, consent, and the UN

trafficking Protocol’, Gender and

Development, 10(1), pp. 20–27. doi:

10.1080/13552070215897.

Eleanor, M. and Endowed, O. M. C. (2004)

‘Best Practices to Address the Demand

Side of Sex Trafficking Best Practices

to Address the Demand Side of Sex

Trafficking’, (August).

European Court of Auditors (2017) EU

support to fight human trafficking in

South/South- East Asia.

Gallagher, A. (2001) ‘Human Rights and the

New UN Protocols on Trafficking and

Migrant Smuggling: A Preliminary

Analysis’, Human Rights Quarterly,

23(4), pp. 975–1004. doi:

10.1353/hrq.2001.0049.

Gozdziak, E. M. and Collett, E. A. (2005)

‘Research on human trafficking in

North America: A review of literature’,

International Migration, 43(1–2), pp.

99–128. doi: 10.1111/j.0020-

7985.2005.00314.x.

Gugić, Z. (2014) ‘Human Trafficking Under

the Veil of Sex Tourism in Thailand -

Reactions of the EU’, Trgovina Pod

Krinkom Seks Turizma U Jugoistočnoj

Aziji - Reakcije Europske

Unije., (2), pp. 355–376. doi:

10.1525/sp.2007.54.1.23.

Holliday, M. (2016) The Faces Behind The

Facts: Trafficking in Southeast Asia.

Available at:

705 | Examining Feminist Perspective In Abolishing Sex Trafficking Case Study: Sex Trafficking

In Thailand

http://www.lightifycreative.org/blog-

content/2016/8/7/trafficking-in-

southeast-asia (Accessed: 1

September 2018).

Hughes, D. M. (2004) ‘Best Practices to

Address the Demand Side of Sex

Trafficking’,

International Migration, 11(1), pp. 1–13.

doi: 10.1111/1469-8676.12280.

Human Rights Watch (2017) Refugees,

Asylum Seekers, and Migrant Workers.

Available at:

https://www.hrw.org/world-

report/2017/country-

chapters/thailand.

Jeffreys, S. (2009) ‘The Industrial Vagina:

The Political Economy of the Global

Sex Trade’,

p. 244. Available at:

http://books.google.com/books?id=9

mlFgjEBYWYC&pgis=1.

Kara, S. (2009) Sex Trafficking: Inside the

Business of Modern Slavery. New York:

Columbia University Press.

Kobler, A. (2017) ‘Escaping the clutches of

sex trafficking in Thailand’. Available

at:

https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/fe

atures/2017/07/escaping-clutches-

sex-trafficking- thailand-

170730071208339.html.

Liberty Asia (2017) Legal Gap Analysis of

Thailand’s Anti-Trafficking Legislation.

Lim, L. L. (1998) The sex sector : the

economic and social bases of

prostitution in Southeast Asia. Geneva:

International Labour Office.

Martinez, O. and Kelle, G. (2014) ‘Sex

Trafficking of LGBT Individuals: A Call

for Service Provision, Research, and

Action’, 8(9), pp. 1385–1395. doi:

10.2217/nnm.12.167.Gene.

Meyers, D. T. (2014) ‘Feminism and Sex

Trafficking: Rethinking Some Aspects

of Autonomy and Paternalism’, Ethical

Theory and Moral Practice, 17(3), pp.

427–441. doi: 10.1007/s10677-013-

9452-1.

Miriam, K. (2005) ‘Stopping the traffic in

women: Power, agency and abolition

in feminist

debates over sex-trafficking’, Journal of

Social Philosophy, 36(1), pp. 1–17. doi:

10.1111/j.1467-9833.2005.00254.x.

Munro, J. (2011) ‘The relationship between

the origins and regime design of the

ASEAN intergovernmental

commission on human rights (AICHR)’,

International Journal of Human Rights,

15(8), pp. 1185–1214. doi:

10.1080/13642987.2010.511996.

Niamvanichkul, N. (2013) Human

Trafficking For Sexual Exploitation In

Southeast Asia. Available at:

http://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/2670.

Parameswaran, P. (2016) ‘Thailand Ratifies

ASEAN Trafficking Convention’.

Available at:

https://thediplomat.com/2016/07/tha

iland-ratifies-asean-trafficking-

convention/.

Pateman, C. (1999) ‘What’ s Wrong with

Prostitution?’, Women’s Studies

Quarterly, 27(1), pp. 53–64.

Pateman, C. (2016) ‘Sexual Contract’, The

Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of

Gender and Sexuality Studies, pp. 1–3.

Naeli Fitria | 706

doi:10.1002/9781118663219.wbegss4

68.

Patrick, H. (2018) How airlines are

preventing human trafficking on

flights.

Penttinen, E. (2008) Globalization,

Prostitution and Sex-Trafficking:

Corporeal Politics. New York:

Routledge.

Pulitzer Center (2009) The Economics of

Commercial Sexual Exploitation.

Available at:

https://pulitzercenter.org/reporting/e

conomics-commercial-sexual-

exploitation (Accessed: 19 July 2018).

Raphael, J. (2017) ‘Returning Trafficking

Prevalence to the Public Policy

Debate: Introduction to the Special

Issue’, Journal of Human Trafficking,

3(1), pp. 1–20. doi:

10.1080/23322705.2017.1280314.

Raymond, J. G. (2003) ‘Ten Reasons for Not

Legalizing Prostitution and a Legal

Response to the Demand for

Prostitution’, Journal of Trauma

Practice, 2(3/4), pp. 33–74. doi:

10.1300/J189v02n03.

Reinares, L. B. (2015) Sex Trafficking in

Postcolonial Literature: Transnational

Narratives from Joyce to Bolano. New

York: Routledge. Available at:

http://www.repository.law.indiana.edu

/ilj/vol86/iss4/5.

Reyes, C. (2015) History of Prostitution and

Sex Trafficking in Thailand. Available

at:

https://www.endslaverynow.org/blog/

articles/history-of-prostitution-and-

sex-trafficking-in- thailand (Accessed:

19 July 2018).

Robinson, C., Thame, C. and Branchini, C.

(2016) ‘Anti-Human Trafficking in

Thailand’, (June).

Roos, A. (2015) Red Light and Red Tape :

Red Light and Red Tape : Activist

Organisations within the Red Light

District : the Reclaiming of Power and

its Effect on Discourse. Utrecht

University.

Royal Thai Government (2016) ‘Thailand’s

Country Report on Human Trafficking

Response’, (December). Available at:

https://www.jica.go.jp/project/thailan

d/016/materials/ku57pq00001yw2db-

att/thailands_country_report_01.pdf.

Seckan, B. (2012) Sex trafficking: Trends,

challenges and limitations of

international law. Available at:

https://journalistsresource.org/studie

s/international/human-rights/sex-

trafficking-trends-international-law

(Accessed: 23 July 2018).

Segrave, M., Milivojevic, S. and Pickering, S.

(2018) Sex Trafficking and Modern

Slavery: The Absence of Evidence. New

York: Routledge.

Smith, N. J. (2011) ‘The international

political economy of commercial sex’,

Review of International Political

Economy, 18(4), pp. 530–549. doi:

10.1080/09692291003762498.

Suchland, J. (2015) Economies of violence:

Transnational feminism,

postsocialism, and the politics of sex

trafficking. Duke: Duke University

Press.

Tarancon, A. N. (2013) Thailand’s Problem

with the Sexual Exploitation of

Women in the 21st Century.

707 | Examining Feminist Perspective In Abolishing Sex Trafficking Case Study: Sex Trafficking

In Thailand

Georgetown University.

Tzvetkova, M. (2002) ‘NGO responses to

trafficking in women’, Gender and

Development, 10(1), pp. 60–68. doi:

10.1080/13552070215893.

United Nations General Assembly (2000)

‘Protocol to prevent, suppress and

punish trafficking in persons,

especially women and children,

supplementing the United Nations

convention against transnational

organized crime’, Transnational

Organized Crime, 2000(November), p.

12. doi: 0951-6328.

United Nations General Assembly (2017)

Resolution adopted by the General

Assembly on 19 December 2016.

UNODC (2018) UNODC report on human

trafficking exposes modern form of

slavery. Available at:

http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/hu

man-trafficking/global-report-on-

trafficking- in-persons.html (Accessed:

28 July 2018).

Weitzer, R. (2016) ‘Sex Trafficking and the

Sex Industry : The Need for Evidence-

Based Theory and Legislation’, Journal

of Criminal Law and Criminology,

101(4), pp. 1337–1369.

Weitzer, R. (2017) ‘Additional reflections on

sex work stigma’, Sexualities, p.

136346071668451. doi:

10.1177/1363460716684513.

Wilcox et al. (2009) ‘Tackling the Demand

for Prostitution: A Rapid Evidence

Assessment of the published research

literature’.

Wuiling, C. (2006) ‘Assessing criminal

justice and human rights models in

the fight against sex trafficking: A case

study of the ASEAN region’, Essex

Human Rights Review, 3(1), pp. 46–63.

Available at:

http://projects.essex.ac.uk/ehrr/V3N1

/Wuiling.pdf.

Yi, B. L. (2017) ‘Thailand taps tourists to

fight human trafficking and keep the

country smiling’. Available at:

https://www.reuters.com/article/us-

thailand-trafficking-

tourism/thailand-taps-tourists-to-fight-

human-trafficking-and-keep-the-

country-smiling- idUSKBN1HO1D2.

Yusran, R. (2018) ‘The ASEAN Convention

Against Trafficking in Persons : A

Preliminary Assessment’, 8(October

2017), pp. 258–292. doi:

10.1017/S2044251317000108

for possible open access publication

under the terms and conditions of the Creative

Commons Attribution (CC BY SA) license

(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/).