JRSSEM 2022, Vol. 02, No. 5, 798 – 809

E-ISSN: 2807 - 6311, P-ISSN: 2807 - 6494

DOI : 10.36418/jrssem.v2i05.321 https://jrssem.publikasiindonesia.id/index.php/jrssem

LANGUAGE DISORDER OF AUTISM IN ‘ATYPICAL’ SERIES

(2017-2021): A PSYCHOLINGUISTICS STUDY

Mutiara Indah

Tika Yulianti

1,2

Faculty of Social Sciences and Letters, Universitas Kebangsaan Republik Indonesia

e-mail: mutiarain[email protected].id, tikabandung0@gmail.com

*Correspondence: mutiaraindah@ukri.ac.id

Submitted

: 29

November 2022

Revised

: 17

December 2022

Accepted

: 26

December 2022

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to recognize what kind of language disorder experienced by

Sam as an autistic in ‘Atypical’ series 2017-2021, to describe what factors of language disorder

experienced by Sam, and to describe what therapy of language disorder for Sam. The researcher

uses qualitative method for doing this research. The data was taken from the utterances of autistic,

Sam Gardner as the main character. There were 60 phenomenon of language disorder, 58 receptive

language disorder and 2 expressive language disorder. The most common symptom of receptive

language disorder experienced by Sam is difficulty following verbal directions 21 data, followed by

interpreting words or phrases 19 data, not appearing to listen 12 data, limited vocabulary 3 data,

difficulty understanding complex sentence 2 data, and demonstrating lack of interest 1 data.

Meanwhile, Sam just experienced two symptoms of expressive language disorder, word-finding

difficulties 1 data and over-reliance on stock phrases 1 data. This phenomenon occurs caused by

many factors, whether difficulty in joint attention, failed in integrated the information with semantic

attributes, autism symptoms such as echolalia, deficits in ToM, trouble in retrieval words, etc.

Keywords: language disorder, autism, psycholinguistics.

Mutiara Indah, Tika Yulianti | 799

INTRODUCTION

As social beings, human beings use

language to interact with each other for a

purpose in social life. In addition, language

plays an important role in our daily life such

as expressing thoughts, feelings, ideas, etc.

As Harley (2005:10) says, language is a form

of social activity. In addition, people use

language as an act of social activity that

involves communicating their ideas,

thoughts, perspectives, or feelings and

building relationships by using language.

That is to say that the main function of

language is for communication, and also as

a fundamental aspect in human life,

therefore the human being must be able to

generate what he wants to talk about and

understand what others say to him.

According to Harley (2001:21), language

expresses many processes, both in

speaking, listening, etc. Moreover, to be

able to generate and understand language,

people have to go through several

processes.

Language perception is the process of

interpreting speech in conversation. People

will be able to interact with each other if

they have succeeded in speech perception.

The perception of language goes through

several processes involving our brain and

memory. Based on Trieman et al (2003: p. 6-

17), humans perceive language through

several processes, starting from trying to

recognize words when the signal comes,

they will try to recognize whether the signal

is sequential as a consonant or a vowel. .

Then, create a visual representation for

printed word recognition. The brain will

access the meaning of words and integrate

all the information corresponding to the

words in the mental lexicon. Then, make

distant considerations for the sentences we

hear, including considering the exact

grammatical aspects, and whether there is

a possibility of using metaphors or

nonliteral meanings in that utterance. In

addition, the ability to understand

language is key in social interaction.

In addition, the production of

language also has an important role in

social interaction. People will face some

problems in their lives, so they must be able

to produce language. The production of

language occurs through several processes,

starting from accessing a single word in our

mental lexicon. Our brain will conceptualize

for the topic being discussed, so that we

will decide what ideas to express and fit the

concept. The idea we choose must be

considered in its reference, so that we can

take the right decision in choosing one

word, according to the context. After

successfully selecting the appropriate

words, we consider the morpho-

phonological coding that we will take and

generate with the correct phonological

aspect through sound. For example, if the

chosen word is infant, there is only one

morpheme taken, but for grandchildren or

walking, there are two morphemes taken.

The next step is to create a phonological

concept of the word, for example for the

word baby, there are segments /b/, /a/, /b/,

/y/ to be taken back. Furthermore, in this

case the speaker must know the rules of

language applied to those segments when

generating words, many words have

pressure according to their rules, usually

English words have pressure on the first

syllable. The rule of which word segments

to emphasize is stored in the lexicon,

800 | Language Disorder of Autism In ‘Atypical’ Series (2017-2021): A Psycholinguistics Study

furthermore, in phonological coding,

segments and word emphasis should be

combined for successful production (Levelt

et al. 1999). In addition, it can be concluded

that language production consists of three

main stages of the conceptual process, the

process of searching for words, and the

phonological or articulatory process. Three

main stages must be completed for the

successful production of the language.

In addition, people must be able to

understand and produce language to

communicate well. But in this case not

everyone in the world can understand and

produce language well, this phenomenon is

called language disorder (Leutuang, 2008,

p. 2). According to the American Speech-

Language-Hearing Association (1982, p.

949-950), language disorders are the

inability to understand and produce

language. Therefore, a person who has

difficulty in using the language, is usually

caused by a failure in processing the

language. As Carroll, D. W. (2008, p. 46)

states the way in which humans understand

and produce language is the result of

information processing systems.

People with language disorders are

usually sufferers in communicating their

ideas, or interpreting beliefs and ideas that

come from others. As Varley (2008:10) says

that people with language disorders have

difficulty in expressing their thoughts and

interpreting their beliefs and ideas to

others. Language disorders can be divided

into two types, namely receptive and

expressive language disorders (Carroll, J. B.,

1985: 282). Receptive language disorder is

the inability to understand and process

what others say to them, while expressive

language disorder is the inability to

communicate what they want to say. This

means that people with language disorders

will have difficulties in daily conversation,

fail in building relationships and experience

failures in understanding the topic being

discussed, etc.

Language disorders are usually

experienced by children with

neurodevelopmental disorders (American

Psychiatric Association, 2013). According to

the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of

Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5,

2013, pp. 31-86), there are several types of

neurodevelopmental disorders, including

intellectual disability, communication

disorders, Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD),

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD), specific learning disorders, motor

disorders, etc. But this study focused only

on language disorders experienced by

autistic people.

Autism is a neurodevelopmental

disorder that has an impact on behavioral

disorders and social interactions. According

to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of

Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5,

2013: 50), Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

includes a wide range of presentations that

can be traced to a triad of symptoms such

as reciprocal social interaction disorder,

disorganized verbal and nonverbal

communication, and limited and repetitive

behaviors or limited interests. This means

people with autism have difficulty getting

involved with social life, and in simple terms

autistic people usually see, hear, and feel

the world differently than normal people. In

addition, people with autism will find it

difficult to establish relationships in their

environment, since the symptoms of autism

will make them strange from the point of

Mutiara Indah, Tika Yulianti | 801

view of others.

Autism can occur by prenatal risk

factors, christmas risk factors, and postnatal

risk factors. On prenatal risk factors,

including parental age (maternal and

paternal age more than or equal to 34 years

have been approved as one of the factors

that increase the risk of autism), maternal

physical health (maternal physical diseases

such as metabolic syndrome, bleeding and

Infection during pregnancy are also

associated with autistic children), maternal

mental health (psychiatric history of

parents such as Schizophrenia, depression,

anxiety and personality disorders, also

increase the risk of autism), maternal

prenatal drug use (drug use in pregnancy

increases the risk by up to 46% for autism,

the use of various types of drugs also

increases the risk of autism by 68%), the

socioeconomic status of the family

(economic, social, educational, and

psychological aspects of family life are also

associated with the risk of autism). Risk

factors for Christmas, such as fetal

complications (fetal nuchal cord and

cesarean delivery) increase the risk of

autism by 26%. Postnatal risk factors,

including low birth weight, jaundice, and

postnatal infections also increase the risk of

autism (Karimi, P., Kamali, E., Mousavi, S. M.,

& Karahmadi, M. 2017, vol 22, p. 27).

Autism rates are rising due to a lack of

public awareness of the symptoms of

autism, and not being detected early.

According to the World Health

Organization (2021) on World Autism

Awareness Day, there is about one in 160

children in the world experiencing ASD but

it may be higher than expected. This

condition needs special treatment because

people with autism are usually the subject

of stigma, discrimination, and human rights

violations depicted in the 'Atypical' series.

The series depicts a teenager who faces

autism syndrome in social interactions. He

has difficulty in social interaction and is

bullied, ostracized by others or

underestimated.

Furthermore, people with autism need

intervention in the face of their social life

because autism is characterized by social

interaction disorder. Based on Shenoy, D.

M., et al (2017) states that therapy for

people with autism will improve their skills

in functional independence and quality of

life, as well as minimize the traits of autism.

Therefore, people with autism need to be

facilitated with therapy, both therapy for

oneself and the elderly to provide a natural

setting environment to facilitate autism for

social skills intervention.

This study aims to identify the

language disorders experienced by Sam

Gardner in the 'Atypical' series. This study

also aims to describe what factors cause

language disorders and what is the therapy

of language disorders in the Atypical series.

The 'Atypical' series tells the story of a

teenager with autism named Sam Gardner.

Autism affects her communication with her

family and everyone around her. Sam was

diagnosed with ASD at the age of four, and

the series focuses solely on portrayal of

Sam when he was 18. Sam has difficulty in

social interaction, stereotypical behavior,

and limited interests. Sam experiences the

challenge of making a friend or girlfriend

for his age, when he falls into stress, he

hums many times, reads the four penguin

names 'Adelie, Chinstrap, Emperor, Gentoo'

and knocks with rubber, it makes Sam look

802 | Language Disorder of Autism In ‘Atypical’ Series (2017-2021): A Psycholinguistics Study

weird.

Based on the depiction in season 2

episode 5, Sam was born with autism

because he was genetically inherited by his

father. His father, Doug, was stressed for a

long time and sometimes he had panic

attacks, which diagnosed him with stress. In

this case, Sam's father had a mental

disorder, which made Sam born with

autism, often tantrums as a child. Sam

experiences tantrums when he feels

stressed, for example when he is in a crowd,

hearing music too loud, etc. Any symptoms

that continued until Sam grew up,

sometimes he cried and screamed when

stressed. It is known that Autism Spectrum

Disorders (ASD) are highly inherited from a

genetic aspect, about 70% of cases, even

the underlying genetics are still unknown

(O'Roak, B. J. et al., 2012, p. 1).

Researchers are concerned about this

phenomenon and want to apply and

improve linguistic knowledge, specifically

psycholinguistics, to analyze the types of

language disorders and to describe what

factors influence language disorders in

autism. It is important to know the types of

language disorders and the factors that

follow them, to increase knowledge and

awareness about the symptoms of autism

and the early detection of symptoms of

autism. Thus it will be one of the ways to

increase the knowledge of the mother in

helping her child with ASD. In addition, it

can build affection between the child and

the parent to be patient in the face of the

ASD child. Researchers also hope the study

can help an autistic person who is living a

life with autism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study aims to analyze what kind of

language disorders are experienced by the

main character of the 'Atypical' series

(2017-2021) named Sam Gardner and

describe what factors follow, therefore this

study uses qualitative studies. As Creswell

(2016:287) says that qualitative research

aims to collect data from sites, where the

object of study experiences a problem or

problem based on the research topic

(Hatch, 2002; Marshall & Rossman 2016).

This study uses a qualitative method

because the data in this study are words or

sayings from the main character of the

'Atypical' series. As Miles and Huberman

(1984) state qualitative data usually

describe words rather than numbers.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The 'Atypical' series tells the story of a

teenager named Sam Gardner who is

diagnosed with Autism. The series also tells

the story of an teen, 18-year-old with

autism who is involved in social life, and

how their family, friends, or neighborhood

provide support for Sam. Sam has difficulty

building relationships such as making

friends, having a girlfriend, etc. She also has

trouble understanding what others are

saying to them as she communicates with

her parents, her friends, her boyfriend, etc.

Therefore, his family gave him a therapist to

help him engage with social life.

In this passage, researchers recognize

the language disorder experienced by Sam.

The data are taken from the series 'Atypical'

(2017-2021) and its subheadings, and

categorized into expressive or receptive

language disorders according to John

Mutiara Indah, Tika Yulianti | 803

Carrol's theory. The data consists of several

cases, according to the series of scenes in

which the data was taken. Researchers use

the numbers [S1E1] meaning the data is

taken from Season 1 Episode 1, [S2E1]

means the data is taken from Season 2

Episode 1, etc. The researcher also compiles

all the data based on the ordinal of the time

the phenomenon occurs, such as data 1,

data 2, data 3, etc.

After analyzing the data, researchers

found 60 language disorder phenomena

experienced by Samuel Gardner in the

2017-2021 'Atypical' series. Such

phenomena include receptive language

disorder 58 data, and expressive language

disorder 2 data. The most common

symptoms of receptive language disorder

Sam experienced were difficulty following

verbal directions 21 data, followed by

interpreting words or phrases 19 data, not

appearing to listen to 12 data, limited

vocabulary 3 data, difficulty understanding

complex sentences 2 data, and showing

deficiencies in pulling 1 data. Meanwhile,

Sam experiences only two symptoms of

expressive language disorder, having

trouble finding the word 1 data and relying

too much on stock phrases 1 data.

Therefore, researchers concluded that Sam

had receptive language disorder more

often than expressive language disorder.

Language disorder therapy

After exposing the phenomenon of

language disorders that Sam experienced

in the 'Atypical' series (2017-2021),

researchers concluded that autistics need

therapy to engage with social life, just like

Sam as an autistic who gets into trouble

when engaging with social life. Therefore,

his family facilitated him for therapy to help

him engage with social life. In addition,

there are many types of therapies that can

help for autism, such as occupational

therapy (to help live as independently as

possible), speech pathology (to help the

child speak), behavioral therapy (to treat

the challenging behaviors that come with

autism), Sensory-Integration therapy (to

help the autistic when processing sounds,

sounds, lights, and others), social skills

therapy (to develop and practice social

skills), cognitive behavioral therapy

(speech therapy to help children or adults).

with autism), etc.

Samuel Gardner is autistic and he

needs Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

to assist him in developing and maintaining

social interactions with others. In addition,

there is also a 'peer mediated' for autistic

help which is considered as

High-

Functioning-Autism

to improve their social

behaviors such as how to talk to new

friends, how to get the attention of friends,

start a conversation or request, and

continue a conversation. In addition, in an

effort to support autistics, parental or

family mediation is important to teach

social skills in the home environment. As

explained earlier that autism is a

developmental deviation of the nervous

system that affects disorders of behavior

and social interaction. In addition, to

support people with autism, therapy can

help them.

1. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT)

is a therapy to assist clients in managing

their problems by changing the way they

think and behave through speaking

804 | Language Disorder of Autism In ‘Atypical’ Series (2017-2021): A Psycholinguistics Study

sessions. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is

also defined as the integration of cognitive

and behavioral approaches to making

specifically targeted changes in thoughts,

feelings, or behaviors (Scarpa, A., Attwood,

T. 2013, p. 27). This therapy is commonly

used to treat people with anxiety and

depression problems, but it is also useful

for other mental and physical health

problems. As we know that a child or

adolescent with ASD usually has a very

logical thing, then an adaptive CBT

program will help them to identify and

measure emotions, as well as explore

strategies for communicating and

managing emotions. In addition, children

or adolescents with ASD may experience

difficulties with socioemotional processing,

memory for sequential information and

information processing based on context.

Therefore, through the CBT program, the

therapist will teach them how to make

negative feelings, such as fear, anxiety,

stress into a positive perspective. This is

important for them, because the symptoms

of autism are usually followed by feelings of

anxiety, hence helping them with strategies

to manage their emotions and negative

feelings will make them better. Cognitive-

Behavioural Therapy (CBT) can be

performed one-on-one (therapist & client),

or in a formatting group, and is usually

scheduled once or twice a week, with a

duration of 60 minutes or 1 hour in each

session.

One-on-one

In this one-on-one format of ASD

therapy, the therapist will conduct sessions

by asking the client's problems and how

they feel to recognize and understand how

their problems, behaviors and thoughts

affect each other. This corresponds to the

characteristics of autism deficits, lack of

flexibility in thinking and problem solving

(Hill, 2008 in Scarpa, A., Attwood, T. 2013, p.

27). In such cases, Sam as an autistic

teenager, he often experiences negative

feelings such as anxiety, stress, fear when

facing problems. Those problems that

usually make him have negative feelings

such as facing changes, fear when it comes

to crowds, or noise, etc. Then, he came to

his therapist and told him about their

problems and feelings, then his therapist

would give Sam his way of thinking or

behaving, and make some strategies for the

next time he got into trouble and negative

feelings.

Group format

In this group format, the therapist will

conduct a session with one topic, and

participants will share their feelings or

emotions based on the topic, then the

therapist will make conclusions and provide

some problem-solving strategies that will

be beneficial for them to face their problem

next time. The group therapy format will be

very effective because all participants can

reduce negative feelings such as shyness,

isolation and autism-related stigma. For

such cases, Sam as an autistic teenager, he

has joined a 'peer group' program at his

school to assist autistics in preparing for

their future. The therapist will hear about all

of Sam's problems and make problem

solving, and prepare the group for a plan

after graduation, whether they want to go

to college or work. This therapy made Sam

a confident and successful person to get

into college, because college is a big

Mutiara Indah, Tika Yulianti | 805

problem for autism. In addition, this

therapy will provide positive changes for

autistics in social interactions.

2. Parents or Family mediated

This therapy is aimed at parents who

help him facilitate naturalistic settings for

social skills interventions for autistic

children in the home environment. In this

program, the therapy will teach parents

how to deal with autistic children when they

face difficult social problems in various

settings. According to Gutstein & whitney

(2002, as quoted in Catherine, S., 2011), this

therapy is designed to promote the

different experiences of some parents, and

share their strategies, it will help parents to

understand the needs of their child.

CONCLUSIONS

a. Findings of the phenomenon of

language disorders

After analyzing the data, researchers

found 60 language disorder phenomena

experienced by Samuel Gardner in the

2017-2021 'Atypical' series. Such

phenomena include receptive language

disorder 58 data and expressive language

disorder 2 data. The most common

symptoms of receptive language disorder

Sam experienced were difficulty following

verbal directions 21 data, followed by

interpreting words or phrases 19 data, not

appearing to listen to 12 data, limited

vocabulary 3 data, difficulty understanding

complex sentences 2 data and showing

shortcomings of pulling 1 data. Meanwhile,

Sam experiences only two symptoms of

expressive language disorder, having

trouble finding the word 1 data and relying

too much on stock phrases 1 data.

Therefore, researchers concluded that Sam

had receptive language disorder more

often than expressive language disorder.

b. Findings of the type of therapy for

Samuel Gardner.

After finding data on language

disorders experienced by Samuel Gardner,

researchers concluded that an autistic

person needs therapy to engage with social

life, including Sam. Therefore, his family

facilitated him to prepare and support him

in social life. In addition, there are many

types of therapies that can help for autism,

such as occupational therapy (to help live

as independently as possible), speech

pathology (to help the child speak),

behavioral therapy (to treat the challenging

behaviors that come with autism), Sensory-

Integration therapy (to help the autistic

when processing sounds, sounds, lights,

and others), social skills therapy (to develop

and practice social skills), cognitive

behavioral therapy (speech therapy to help

children or adults). with autism), etc.

Samuel Gardner is autistic and he

especially needs Cognitive Behavioral

Therapy (CBT) to help him develop and

maintain social interactions with others.

Samuel Gardner attends

Cognitive

Behavioral Therapy

(CBT) in either one-on-

one sessions or peer group sessions to

optimize his ability to interact with others.

In addition, her parents also join 'parent or

family mediated', this therapy is aimed at

parents who help her facilitate naturalistic

arrangements for social skills interventions

for autistic children in the home

environment. In addition, this therapy can

help autistics to minimize the appearance

of autistic symptoms that interfere with

806 | Language Disorder of Autism In ‘Atypical’ Series (2017-2021): A Psycholinguistics Study

their social life.

REFERENCES

Altmann, G. T. M., (1995). Cognitive Models

of Speech Processing, Psycholinguistic

and Computational Perspectives, First

Edition. MIT Press.

American Psychiatric Association (APA).

2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual

of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition.

Washington, DC: American Psychiatric

Association.

Anderson, C. (2018). Essentials of

Linguistics. Mc Master University.

Carroll, D. W. (2008). Psychology of

Language, (Fifth Edition). California:

Thomson Wadsworth.

Chomsky, N. (2007). Language and Mind,

Third Edition. New York: Cambridge

University Press

Clark, H. H., & Clark, E.V. (1977). Psychology

and Language: An Introduction to

Psycholinguistics. New York: Harcourt

Brace Jovanovich

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018).

Research Design, Qualitative,

Quantitative, and Mixed Methods

Approaches, Fifth Edition. United States

of America: SAGE Publications.

Dardjowidjojo, S. (2008). Psycholinguistics,

Introduction to Human Language

Understanding. Jakarta: Indonesian

Torch Foundation.

Fernandez, E. M., & Cairns, H. S. (2018). The

Handbook of Psycholinguistics. USA:

Wiley Blackwell

Field, J. (2004). Psycholinguistics: The Key

Concept. London: Routledge.

Forrester, M. A. (1996). Psychology of

Language, A Critical Introduction.

London: SAGE Publications Ltd.

Glezerman, T., & Balkoski, V. (2002).

Language, Thought, and the Brain. USA:

Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Harley, T. (2005). The Psychology of

Language. From Data to Theory. New

York: Psychology press Translation, vol.

52, p. 13-21.

Hatch, E., & Brown. S. (1995). Vocabulary,

Semantics, and Language Education.

New York: Cambridge University Press.

Joffe, V., Cruice, M., & Chiat, S. (2008).

Language Disorders in Children and

Adults. United Kingdom: John Wiley &

Sons, Ltd., Publication

Jufrizal, (2011). Introduction to Linguistics.

In: Language and Linguistics. Universitas

Terbuka, Jakarta, pp. 1-46. ISBN

9796899272.

Knight, C., Kennedy, M. S., & Hurford, J. A.

(2004). The Evolutionary Emergence of

Language, Social Function and the

Origins of Linguistics Form. Cambridge:

University Press

Levelt, W. J. M. (1991). Lexical Access In

Speech Production. Speech motor

control and stuttering.

Levelt, W. J. M. (1992). Accessing words in

speech production: Stages, processes

and representations. Cognition, 42: 1-22.

Scarpa, A., Williams White, S., & Attwood, T.

(Eds). (2013). CBT For Children and

Adolescents with High-Functioning-

Autism Spectrum Disorder. The Guilford

Press.

Schopler, E., & Mesibov, G. B. (1992). High-

Functioning Individuals with Autism.

New York: Springer-Science+Business

Media.

Steiberg, D. D., & Sciarini, N. V. (2006). An

Mutiara Indah, Tika Yulianti | 807

Introduction to Psycholinguistics,

Second Edition. Great Britain: Pearson

Education Limited.

Trieman, R., Clifton, C., Jr, Meyer, A. S., &

Wurm, L. H. (2003). Language

Comprehension and Production.

Comprehensive Handbook of

Psychology, vol. 4: Experimental

Psychology. New York: John Wiley &

Sons, Inc. Pages 527-548. Copyright

John Wiley & Sons.

Journal:

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1969).

Storage and Retrieval Processes in Long-

Term Memory. Psychological Review, vol.

76(2), p. 179-193.

Bernice, A. (2021). Language and the Brain:

A Twofold Study of Language

Production and Language

Comprehension as a Separate or

Integrated Set of Processes. Journal of

English Language Teaching and Applied

Linguistics, vol 3(5). DOI:

10.32996/jeltal.2021.3.5.9

Campbell, L., Nicoll, H., & Ebbels, S. H.

(2019). The effectiveness of semantic

intervension for word-finding difficulties

in college-aged students (16-19 years)

with persistent Language Disorder.

Autism & Developmental Language

Impairments, vol. 4, p. 1-17. DOI.

10.1177/2396941519870784.

Cooper, A. C., & Simons, J. S. (2018).

Exploring the neurocognitive basis of

episodic recollection in autism.

Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (2019),

vol 26, p. 163 – 181. DOI:

10.3758/s13423-018-1504-z.

Cummings, A., Seddoh, A., Jallo, B. (2016).

Phonological code retrieval during

picture naming: Influence of consonant

class. Brain res, 1635: 71-85. DOI:

10.1016/j.brainres. 2016.01.014.

Dirani, J. & pyikkänen, L. (2018). Lexical

Access in Comprehension vs.

Production: Spatiotemporal Localization

of Semantic Facilitation and

Interference. Retrived from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/449157.

Fikrotuz, A. (2015). “The Expressive

Language Disorder of the Cerebral Palsy

in Skallaggrig Movie.” Malang: Maulana

Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University.

Retrieved from http://etheses.uin-

malang.ac.id/3594/1/11320001.pdf

Gaigg, S. B., Bowler, D. M., Ecker, C., et al.

(2015). Episodic Recollection Difficulties

in ASD Result from Atypical Relational

Encoding: Behavioral and Neural

Evidence. Autism Research, vol. 8, p.

317-327. DOI: 10.1002/aur.1448.

Haebig, E., Kaushanskaya, M., Weismer, S. E.

(2016). Lexical Processing in School-Age

Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

and Children with Specific Language

Impairment: The Role of Semantic. J

Autism Dev Disord, vol 45(12), p. 4109 –

4123. DOI: 10.1007/s10803-015-2534-2.

Hansen, A. N. (2017). Atypical: an atypical

portrayal of autism? The Lancet

Psychiatry, vol 4(11), p. 837. DOI:

10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30397-8.

Hatzidaki, A. (200). The Process of

Comprehension from a Psycholinguistic

Approach-Implications for Translation.

Meta, 52(1), 13-21. Retrieved from:

https://doi.org/10.7202/014715ar

Hoque, M. (2020). Branches of linguistics.

Language and Linguistics, vol 1(2), p. 1-

3). Retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/publicatio

808 | Language Disorder of Autism In ‘Atypical’ Series (2017-2021): A Psycholinguistics Study

n/341378918

Jodai, H. An Introduction to

Psycholinguistics, p. 1-14. The university

of Guilan. DOI: 10.4135/9781473973145

Justus, S. A., Powell, P. S., & Duarte, A.

(2021). Intact context memory

performance in adults with autism

spectrum disorder. Scientific reports, vol.

11, p. 20482. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-

99898-2

Karimi, P., Kamali, E., Mousavi, S. M., &

Karahmadi, M. (2017). Environmental

factors influencing the risk of autism.

Journal of Research in Medical Sciences,

vol 22, p. 27. DOI: 10.4103/1735-

1995.200272

Loucas, T., Charman, T., Pickles, A., Simonoff,

E., Meldrum, D. & Baird, G. (2008).

Autistic Symptomatology and Language

Ability in Autism Spectrum Disorder and

Spesific Language Impairment. Journal

of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49,

1184-1192. Doi: 10.1111/j.1469-

7610.2008.01951.x.

Marzona, Y. (2017). Spoken Language

Production: A Psycholinguistic

Approach. International Conference on

Global Education V “Global Eductaion,

Common Wealth, and Cultural Diversity.

DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.2617228

Modi, M. & Belliveau, J. W. (2013). Speech

and Language Impairments in Autism:

Insights from Behaviour &

Neuroimaging. 5(3): 157-161. National

Institute Of Health. DOI:

10.7156/V5I3P157

Nafiah. (2008). Expressive Language

Disorder of the Autistic Child in Mercury

Rising Film. Malang: Maulana Malik

Ibrahim State Islamic University of

Malang. Retrieved from

http://etheses.uin-

malang.ac.id/id/eprint/4647

Pisoni, et al (1985). Speech Perception,

Word Recognition and the Structure of

the Lexicon. Speech Commun, vol 4(1-3),

p. 75-79. DOI: 10.1016/0167-

6393(85)90037-8.

Putri Cinta, S. (2019). A Psycholinguistic

Analysis on Language Disorder used in

“Adam” Movie, Thesis. English

Department, Faculty of Letters and

Humanities, State Islamic University of

Sunan Ampel Surabaya. Retrieved from

http://digilib.uinsby.ac.id/id/eprint/3800

Rabiee, A., Vasaghi-Gharamaleki, B.,

Samadi, S. A., et al. (2020). Working

Memory Deficits and its Relationship to

Autism Spectrum Disorders. Iranian

Journal of Medical Sciences, vol 45(2).

DOI: 10.30476/IJMS.2019.45315

Reilly, J. (2016). Language Disorders. The

SAGE Encyclopedia of Theory in

Psychology. SAGE Publications, Inc.

(508-510). Doi:

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/97814833462

74.n177.

Stille, C. M., Bekolay, T., Blouw, P., Kröger, B.

J. (2020). Modelling the Mental Lexicon

as Part of Long-Term and Working

Memory and Simulating Lexical Access

in a Naming Task Cues. Frontiers in

Psychology, 11:1594. DOI:

10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01594

Suherman. (2016). Language Disorder of

Main Character in the Movie “MY Name

is Khan.” Undergraduate (S1) thesis,

Universitas Islam Negeri Alauddin

Makassar. Retrieved from

http://repositori.uin-

alauddin.ac.id/6312/1/SUHERMAN_opt.

Mutiara Indah, Tika Yulianti | 809

pdf

Van Dulm. (2002). A Psycholinguistic

Approach To The Classification,

Evaluation And Remediation Of

Language Disorder. University of

Stellenbosch. Stellenbosch Papers in

Linguistics, Vol. 34, 2002, 111-131. Doi:

10.5774/34-0-32.

Weber, A., & Scharenborg, O. (2012).

Models of spoken-word recognition.

Wiley interdisciplinary reviews. DOI:

10.1002/wcs.1178

Yelland, G. W. (2002). Word Recognition

and Lexical Access. Encyclopedia of

Language and Linguistics, vol. 4, p. 1-11.

Retrieved from

https:semanticscholar.org

Submitted

for possible open access

publication

under the terms and conditions of the

Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY SA)

license

(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-

sa/4.0/).