JRSSEM 2022, Vol. 02, No. 3, 391 – 402

E-ISSN: 2807 - 6311, P-ISSN: 2807 - 6494

DOI: 10.36418/jrssem.v2i03.292 https://jrssem.publikasiindonesia.id/index.php/jrssem

RISK MANAGEMENT FOR SPORTING EVENTS

Zemikael Getu

Sisay Mengistu

Sports Science faculty, Hawassa University, Etiopia

e-mail: zemikaelgetu@yahoo.com, sisaymengistu@yahoo.com

*Correspondence: zemikaelgetu@yahoo.com

Submitted

: 12 October 2022

Revised

: 21 October 2022

Accepted

: 30 October 2022

Abstract: Risk management is one of the primary responsibilities of event organizers, yet so often

ignored or misunderstood, particularly by inexperienced planners, because, like my now-paranoid

event-goers, one can’t envision what one has not been exposed to – they don’t know what they

don’t know. This article will show you how and why risk management is a fundamental component

of event management, and introduce you to the functions of risk management within the overall

field of events management and the tools you may use to perform these functions effectively. The

research is underpinned by a constructivist approach that purposes scientific knowledge as a

human creation made available with material and cultural resources. Research adopting this

approach builds and generates theory about the phenomenon through participants' own

words, allowing respondents to express their attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors in the absence of

preconceived notions. Through this combination of legislative provisions, event organizers are

encouraged to work with all actors involved with the event to develop a framework that

facilitates the effective allocation of risk management responsibilities amongst the various

actors by each actor’s ability to control the activities that give rise to those risks.

Keywords: Risk Management, Sporting Events, Organizers.

Zemikael Getu

Sisay Mengistu

| 392

DOI: 10.36418/jrssem.v2i03.292 https://jrssem.publikasiindonesia.id/index.php/jrssem

INTRODUCTION

The contemporary environment of

sports organizations is very turbulent, with

increasingly complex and random changes

and many risks with a significant impact. In

professional literature, such an

environment is indicated by the phrase’s

hypercharge, hyper competitors, and

hyper-turbulence, and increasingly also as a

“risky society”. Such a “risky” environment is

not limited only to health and

environmental risks but also includes a

series of interlinked changes in

contemporary social life – changes in work

patterns, increasingly greater insecurity of

the workplace well as insecurity in daily life,

a decrease of the impact of tradition and

habits, the collapsing of traditional forms

and family patterns, etc. All this contributes

to a state of affairs in which attending

sports competitions today is much riskier

than earlier. Such insanity and

unpredictability of changes have led to new

paradigms for organizations and new

management paradigms which are also

radically reflected in the area of sports and

sports competitions. Thus, “a new concept,

new technologies, and a, nw lifestyle

demand a new management” (Mašić, 2001,

p. 2) (Ilić, Bošković, Radovanović, & Practice,

2013).

The aim of the research

This research aims to contribute to the

recognition of the risks of contemporary

social reality, the assessment of its possible

impact on sports events, and to indicate the

significance and way of application of

tested functions of managing risk

management in sports events.

Research Questions

1. What unique risks are associated with

sports events, for organizers,

participants, sponsors, guests, and the

general public?

2. Describe the main elements in a health

and safety plan for sports events.

Include a discussion of how site

capacity is important and how it can be

determined.

3. Define “risk management” for sports

event managers. Give examples of the

special risks for sports events.

4. Outline a risk management plan

including generic strategies for dealing

with risks.

5. What are the main principles of alcohol

risk management? What related

training is needed for staff and

volunteers?

Distinguish between crowd

management and crowd control. Give

examples.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research is underpinned by a

constructivist approach that purposes

scientific knowledge as a human creation

made available with material and cultural

resources (Bloor, 1976; Golinski, 1998).

Constructivism is based upon a relativist

belief that there are multiple socially

constructed truths and realities, with no

rational basis for judging one perspective

better than another (Fay, 1996; Rubin &

Rubin, 1995). Research adopting this

approach builds and generates theory

393 | Risk Management For Sporting Events

about the phenomenon through

participants' own words, allowing

respondents to express their attitudes,

beliefs, or behaviors in the absence of

preconceived notions (Golinski, 1998;

Jennings, 2001) (Reid & Ritchie, 2011).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Risks are associated with sports events, for

organizers, participants, sponsors, guests,

and the general public

The process by which risk

management is interpreted and executed

by organizing committees and major

stakeholders of events is becoming

increasingly important, especially in one-

time large-scale international sporting

events, because of the increased

international media coverage, higher

insurance costs, and the possibility of

events such as terrorist attacks (Leopkey &

Parent, 2009).

Within the last 20 years, the hosting of

sporting events has become an increasingly

popular goal for many communities

(Emery, 2001; Whitson & MacIntosh, 1996).

This is due to the potential for exponential

ROI (return on investment) and legacy

benefits such as new facilities and

improved infrastructure, increased

community spirit, and

national/international recognition (Ritchie,

1984). Events include cultural events and

festivals such as Carabana and Mardi Gras,

and sports tournaments such as the FIFA

(Federation Internationale de Football

Association) World Cup (Watt, 1998). For

large-scale sporting events, in particular,

academic and popular press books deal

with many issues such as economics,

tourism, and marketing (e.g., Getz, 2005;

Preuss, 2004) (Leopkey & Parent, 2009).

Classical risk management stems from

the project management research literature

(Chappelet, 2001). Prior research has shown

that it is possible to approach risk

management in a variety of ways (cf.

Wideman, 1992; Boehm, 1991). However,

most researchers (e.g., Wideman, 1992; Raz

& Michael, 2001) agree that risk

management takes on a cyclical approach,

similar (plus or minus a step) to the Project

Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)

approach (for additional information on

PMBOK visit www.pmi.org), where risk

management is essentially made up of four

phases: identification, assessment,

response, and the documentation of risk

(Wideman, 1992). It is also a common

assumption that risk management

continues throughout the project,

including the planning, execution,

completion, and wrap-up of stages of the

event (Raz & Michael, 2001). The

overarching goal of project risk

management is to identify risks and

develop strategies to reduce or mitigate

them (Wideman, 1992) (Leopkey & Parent,

2009).

Using stakeholder theory (see

Clarkson, 1995; Freeman, 1984; Frooman,

1999; Jones, & Wicks, 1999; Logsdon,

Wood, & Benson, 2000; Mitchell, Agle, &

Wood, 1997, Phillips, 2003; Wolfe, & Putler,

2002) to study risk management issues in

sporting events allows for the examination

of the topic from both sides of the

equation, i.e., from the organizing

committee’s and the stakeholders’

perspectives, and because it allows for the

inclusion of a variety of literature.

Researchers have identified many possible

Zemikael Getu

Sisay Mengistu

|394

stakeholders for a focal organization or

organizing committee. Clarkson (1995)

identified employees, shareholders,

customers, suppliers, and the public as

potential stakeholders of an organization.

Ritchie (1984), during his research on

mega-events, stated that the local

populace, local government, and local

businesses are all key stakeholders in

events. Potential stakeholders proposed by

Emery (2001) included international and

national governing bodies, organizing

committees, media, and sponsors.

(Leopkey & Parent, 2009).

Health and safety plan for sports events &

Importance of site capacity

Responsibility for health and safety

starts with the event owners or board of

directors and extends through all

management functions. In larger events,

and at event venues, a specific manager or

“safety officer” might be required. This work

is closely related to risk management and

security (Getz, 2004).

A very useful manual (“The Event

Safety Guide”, revised 1999) on health and

safety planning for music events has been

prepared in the United Kingdom by the

Health and Safety Executive of their central

government. In the UK and other

jurisdictions, it is a requirement of law for

many events and facilities to produce a

policy and plan for health and safety, and

there are government inspectors to ensure

compliance with all pertinent laws and

regulations (Getz, 2004).

Every type of event and event setting

requires such a plan, and the general

elements of the planning /management

process include (Getz, 2004):

 commitment at all levels to health

and safety (make it part of the event

mission statement).

 ongoing risk assessment (what are

the threats?) .

 health a safety policy and

procedures.

 management systems to implement

the policy and procedures,

including monitoring and

enforcement mechanisms.

 evaluation and revision process

Health and safety management

must occur over the full “life-cycle”

of the event, starting with its

concept stage and ending only with

the termination of the event

organization. Consider the different

issues that arise at each stage:

 Concept: does the event entail

specific health and safety risks? are

they acceptable?

 Long-range planning: includes risk

assessment.

 Site or facility development:

construction and delivery hazards;

competence of the contractors and

the workforce; quality and reliability

of the infrastructure; impacts on the

environment and community.

 Staffing: hiring the right people;

health and safety training for staff

and volunteers;

 The event: supervision of food and

beverage, sanitation, and other

essential services; crowd and traffic

management; security; emergency

procedures; comfort and health

stations and related personnel.

395 | Risk Management For Sporting Events

 Shut-down and termination:

deconstruction and materials

removal; residual site.

 contamination and cleanup; site

security; final evaluations.

Indoor venues will have an assigned

capacity, with the maximum number of

persons determined in advance by fire or

other authorities. For outdoor concert sites,

the Health and Safety Executive (1999)

suggested that 0.5 square meters be

available per person. An additional

technical factor is the ease of entry and exit.

Flow rates for entrances and exits should be

estimated, both for normal and emergency

conditions, resulting in an estimate of the

“minimum evacuation time”. Additional

consideration must be given to persons

with special accessibility needs, such as

those in wheelchairs or who must be

carried (e.g., babies) (Getz, 2004).

Technical risk factors will lead to the

designation of a safe capacity, and on this

point, it is undoubtedly better to err on the

side of safety than to attempt to cram more

people into a venue. Beyond the technical

risk considerations, organizers should also

assure that the event experience is not

diminished by over-crowding the site. For

example, will everyone in a huge audience

be able to see and hear performers? Will

rubbing shoulders with other event-goers

add to the atmosphere? (Getz, 2004).

Risk management for sports event

managers

‘Risk management is the overall

process of assessing and controlling risks

within an organizational setting and

includes the subprocesses of risk

assessment and risk mitigation. In

discussing the principles of risk

management, it is necessary to define the

terms used. A ‘hazard’ or ‘risk factor’ is a

condition, object, or situation that may be

a potential source of harm to people, and

‘risk’ is the probability or likelihood that a

hazard will have an impact on these people

(Fuller & Drawer, 2004).

Risk management is an essential

element of a coach’s skill set (Ferrero, 2007)

and, reflecting this central role, the topic

plays a small but significant part in the vast

majority of coach education programs (cf.

British Canoe Union, 2007). For the outdoor

professional, however, risk management is

a more subtle and wider-ranging skill

(Collins & Collins, 2012). This distinction

presents challenges for the Adventure

Sports Coach (ASC) who must optimally

manage the inherent risks associated with

Adventure Sports (AS), such as rock

climbing, mountaineering, sea kayaking,

white water kayaking, canoeing, and

caving, against the longer term

developmental needs and shorter term

stated goals of clients (Collins & Collins,

2013).

A risk management plan including generic

strategies

This section outlines the risk

management process and contents of a risk

management plan(Getz, 2004).

1: Identification of risk fields

One of the foundations of risk

management is “foreseeability”, and it is a

key element in determining negligence

(Ammon and Fried 1998). Event and facility

managers must draw on experience, the

experience of others, and systematic

determination of possible risks. They may

occur in each of these major risk “fields”:

Zemikael Getu

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Financial: loss of revenue sources, theft

and loss of assets, including data, name,

and logos; costs exceeding projections;

lawsuits and other unanticipated costs.

Management: the risk of goal

displacement, takeovers, or management

failure.

Health and safety hazards for

organizers, participants, guests, and the

general public: accidents (at and outside

the event), health problems, fire, crime,

terrorism, social disturbances, and

unanticipated emergencies.

Environmental: negative impacts on

the environment, community, and

economy; natural hazards (earthquakes,

floods, etc.).

2: Identification of specific risks, and

the consequences, within each field

The “task analysis” performed for

project planning provides a starting point

for managers and staff to identify and

evaluate risks. Each task requires certain

actions, sometimes physical and

sometimes mental, which all have potential

implications. As the event takes shape and

more detail is added to the task breakdown

and schedule, greater focus will be possible

on risks.

Scenario-making is useful and can be

done quite well at staff meetings. Start with

known or possible problems and risks (e.g.

what happened at other events?) and work

backward to see how they can be avoided.

This exercise will help shape the task

analysis, schedule, and program.

Development of a risk evaluation form or

spreadsheet for each event and sub-unit is

recommended.

3: Assignment of the probability of

risks occurring (e.g., low, medium, high)

Evaluate the probability of occurrence.

How likely is it that each risk will

materialize? Group the risks into high,

medium, and low probability categories,

but do not assume that low probability

hazards will not occur!

4: Estimation of the potential

magnitude of impacts.

Not all risks will necessarily result in

losses or problems, so try to anticipate the

positive and negative outcomes of each

potential circumstance and the magnitude

of the consequence. Those with potential

negative and severe consequences require

special consideration. Within each risk field,

major disasters could occur, and they

should be ranked according to potential

magnitude – from multiple perspectives.

Protecting the organization and its assets

might come into conflict with protecting

the environment or the public, so beware of

bias in this assessment.

5: Ranking of risks, from high to low

priority

Which ones have to be dealt with?

Combine the probability of occurrence with

an evaluation of the potential severity of

each, especially those for which the

organizers will likely be held responsible.

High-priority risks have to be dealt with at

once.

6: Identification of strategic options to

deal with risks; selection of appropriate

strategies:

According to Berlonghi (1990), there

are several generic strategies for events to

follow:

Avoidance

: Managers must seek to

anticipate risks, determine their probability

of occurrence, the severity of their impacts,

and ways to avoid or reduce them. Where

397 | Risk Management For Sporting Events

risks are too great, or cannot be handled,

the hazard (such as a program activity or

venue) should be eliminated.

Reduction

: Some hazards can be

minimized or kept to an acceptable level

through better management, training, or

operations. In truth, most event managers

live with certain risks, but this decision

should not be taken without some form of

ongoing assessment and reduction

strategy in place.

Reduce the severity of damage or

losses:

Assuming that problems will occur,

the manager must be prepared to cope.

The event must have emergency response

procedures. Thefts occur, but the number

and severity can be minimized. Weather is

unpredictable, so contingency plans are

necessary.

Diffusion

: Spreading risks among

stakeholders or over time and space can be

effective. For example, if sponsors or other

organizations are involved, it is logical that

risks should be spread among all parties,

rather than being absorbed by the event

organization alone. However, logic might

not convince the other parties to accept a

share of the risks. Vendors and suppliers

can usually be required to share in the risk

management process and provide their

insurance.

Re-allocation

: In some cases, the risks

can be re-allocated completely, as where a

parent body or municipality absorbs risks

for specific events. Any group under

contract to the event can be required to

absorb their risks and take out independent

or co-insurance.

Insurance

: Insurance is necessary to

protect against risks that materialize.

Insurance companies increasingly demand

that managers demonstrate that they have

a risk management strategy in place, and

these companies might even give

appropriate advice. Liability laws and the

need for types and amounts of insurance

vary widely among countries and cannot be

generalized. Event managers must

investigate their needs carefully, or rely on

government agencies or event associations

to provide advice.

7: Implementation of strategies and

evaluation of results:

Implement strategies by formulating

an action plan, training appropriate staff

and volunteers, and rehearsing crucial

operations (e.g., emergency response).

Establish a formal evaluation system for the

event and assign responsibilities. Aim to

constantly improve the process.

Principles of alcohol risk management &

training for staff and volunteers

Events featuring alcohol consumption

can foster a feeling among some patrons

that anything goes. Even when

consumption is regulated and over-

indulgence is not a problem, events can still

face lawsuits arising from uncontrolled

underage drinking (see Emmets, 1995:67).

Consequently, every event serving alcohol

(or likely to attract drinkers) needs an

alcohol risk management system (Getz,

2004).

In British Columbia (Ministry of

Attorney General, 1992:11) a public inquiry

into problems at special events revealed

that alcohol was the top public-raised issue,

including the operation of beer gardens,

underage drinking, the transport of alcohol,

inadequate fines for violators, and unruly

behavior due to drinking. Inadequate site

control and the checking of cars and

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persons for liquor were also problems

identified. Additional costs and risks

associated with alcohol consumption

include(Getz, 2004):

 personal injuries and criminal acts

owing to drunkenness

 additional insurance costs against

the possibility of lawsuits (e.g., if the

event is held partially or wholly

responsible for an accident, injury,

or criminal act by serving alcohol)

 additional security and clean-up

costs

 major financial losses arising from

lawsuits

 vandalism

 image problems and resultant lost

patronage

 attracting the wrong types;

repelling families and other

segments

Event risk managers are keenly aware

of the problem of alcohol at events. The

event risk manager’s first line of defense

against alcohol-related problems is often to

meet with the event’s hosts, hostesses, or

sponsors before the event. During this

meeting, the event risk manager should

provide checklists to prospective clients.

Event risk managers must develop a risk

plan called a “lightning plan” (what you

would do if lightning were to strike). Before

an event in which alcohol is served (Tarlow,

2002):



Determine who is in charge of the

event.

Is there an alcohol service

manager? Make certain that you

can identify the chain of command

for the event.



Find out what plans are in place.

It is

as important to know what plans do

not exist and what plans do exist.

What has been overlooked? Who

forgot what? These are essential

questions.



Determine how similar this alcohol-

related event is to other events of a

similar size and demographic

composition.

Having a benchmark

can be an excellent predictor of

future problems. Do not be afraid to

consult with other event risk

managers and always keep a written

list of essential facts and incidents

after each of your major events.



Evaluate current alcohol

management rules.



Review signage.

Be careful of what

you write on signs or other sources

of information regarding the

serving of alcohol. We live in a very

litigious society, and what you write

may be held against you in court.



Consider all risks.

Event risk

managers are often as concerned

about risks associated with alcohol

that have a low probability of

occurring but whose consequences

are grave as they are about high-

probability risks. First, never see

each risk as unique unto itself.

Instead, assume that there is an

interaction between all risks. Thus,

each risk that is added to the

equation increases the total risk

factor.



Use experience with issues of

intoxication

. If the situation “feels”

wrong, take the time to listen to

your feelings. It is never a mistake to

err on the side of prudence.

399 | Risk Management For Sporting Events



Learn from other events.

Alcohol

problems at events tend to be

similar at many different events. A

college spring break, however, is

very different from a banker’s

meeting. Keep a careful sociological

profile of these events and use

these profiles to help in your

planning. Be careful never to use

racial profiling and never assume

that a person is guilty simply

because he or she falls into a

particular demographic grouping.



Gain knowledge from other sources.

For example, visit different Web

sites to see what your colleagues

are doing about the serving of

alcohol at events.



Examine current insurance policies.

Insurance policies dictate what you

can and cannot do at an event.

Make certain that you speak to the

event’s insurance agent. What

insurance restrictions and

exclusions are enforced? What

coverage do you have?



Use common sense.

Often the best

risk management is common sense.

Part of the job of event risk

managers is to apply their common

sense to the risk situation.



Don’t get angry or feel superior.

It is

all too easy to see a group of people

having a “good time” and start to

feel superior to them. Remember

that your task is to help these

people have a good time with the

least possible amount of risk to life

or property.

Event risk managers must also be

aware of the dram shop laws, based

on the Supreme Court decision in

Samson v. Smith (1989). Event risk

managers should understand how

these laws may impact them and

should consult a professional for

legal advice. The basic premise of

these laws is that if person X gives

too much alcohol to person Y who

then, in an intoxicated state, hurts

himself or another person, then X

can be held liable. There are several

legal points that person Y, the

plaintiff, will have to prove,

including that the injury was a result

of Y’s drinking and that the alcohol

provider knew that the plaintiff was

intoxicated (Tarlow, 2002).

Following are some of the methods

used to contain the problem of

alcohol consumption(Tarlow, 2002):

 Conduct the event at a location

where there are people trained to

serve alcohol.

 Understand and implement

effective crowd control.

 Make certain that carding is

coordinated by the organization’s

personnel.

 Make sure that monitoring is in

place so that underage people are

not involved.

 Do not have an open bar. Open bars

encourage drinking; cash bars allow

for greater control and often limit a

person’s ability to consume more

than he or she should.

 Price the alcoholic drinks

expensively so that guests drink

less.

 Make certain there are designated

drivers at the event.

Zemikael Getu

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 Maintain a list of who is and who is

not 21 years of age.

Crowd management & Crowd control

Martella et al. (2016), Williams

(2013) and Rahmat et al. (2011) refer to

crowd management as a technique to

manage people involving seating

arrangements, crowd behavior,

demographical criteria of the people

involved, emphasizing collaborative

effort between people involved, and as

well as the duration of the event. The

objective of crowd management is

likewise a safety concern and demands

specific attention, which necessitates

careful observation by the event

organizer. An event manager must

develop hard and soft tools that help

monitor and control the individual's

movement and behavior within the

crowd. Two types of crowd control can

be adopted: soft crowd control and

hard crowd control. Soft crowd control

is one of the types of crowd control that

reduces the ability or effectiveness of

the target's actions but does not

entirely prevent them from doing them.

On the other hand, hard crowd control

is a type of crowd control that

completely prevents the target from

taking specific actions, like moving or

casting abilities (Kamarudin, Abd Aziz,

& Ramely, 2022).

According to Fruin (1993), crowd

management and crowd control are

synergistic instead of incompatible.

Crowd management focuses more on

practical strategies and systematic

planning of movement and assembly,

while crowd control focuses more on

reactive strategies and restriction and

the constraint of action. Both crowd

management and crowd control are

influenced by time, space, information,

and energy. Crowd management and

control are becoming significant issues

in the event industry due to this

massive increase in sports events or

outdoor events. Crowd management is

never can be missed in the event

planning process. Small mistakes in

planning would change a great return

into a total loss in sports events

(Mapjabil et al., 2015). A study found

that crowd management in sports

tourism events has increased in

popularity due to their unique

characteristics, and therefore, it needs

particularly successful planning

because it will also increase the average

crowd numbers. Improper crowd

management also can quickly turn a

peaceful event into tragedy (Martella et

al., 2016). Bjelac and Radovanovic

(2003) also agreed that sports events

require good crowd management

practices because of their special

characteristics (Kamarudin et al., 2022).

In the context of crowd

management, the spread of non-

compliant behavior can have a severe

impact on crowd safety if safety rules

are not visibly enforced or crowd

control is not maintained. For example,

others may follow suit if the response

from those controlling the crowd is

slow, weak, or non-existent. The

uncontrolled crowd flow may lead to

overcrowding and other related

hazards. In the early stages of an

emergency, crowd behavior can be

influenced by individuals who appear to

401 | Risk Management For Sporting Events

be experts or know what to do. An

individual or group of people taking

decisive action such as leaving a nearby

exit and outwardly dismissing a

warning as a false alarm) can trigger a

widespread response among the

crowd. The team members of staff

might be allocated to evacuate a venue

or another area (Kamarudin et al.,

2022).

As early as 1995, Berlonghi has

discussed eleven elements when the

organizer intends to implement crowd

management. They are the size of the

crowd, crowd capacity, demographics

of the crowd, and location of the event,

day and time of operations, schedule of

event activities, weather conditions,

seating arrangements, and crowd

movement patterns, the density of

crowd in various locations as well as

specific operations such as

transportation, parking, ticket selling,

and admission control. Other than that,

Martella et al. (2016) and also opined

crowd management should include

thorough planning and preparation,

effective communication with the

whole crowd (audio and visual),

coordinating and collaborative effort

between all agencies involved, led by

skillful and experienced personnel in

crowd management, as well as

leadership and guidance to initiate

crowd management emergencies

(Kamarudin et al., 2022).

Besides, Williams (2013) also

recommended two significant steps in

strategizing crowd management. These

steps include early and often pre-

planning meetings with all stakeholders

and performing risk-hazards analysis of

the event venues. Risk-hazards analysis

should consist of unique and

contingency plans according to the

types of events. The event organizer

who intends to manage the crowd also

needs to be aware of the individual's

diversity and complexity. Kingshott

(2014) mentioned that each individual

possesses different attitudes, social,

racial, religious, cultural composition,

and various psychological dimensions.

(Kamarudin et al., 2022).

CONCLUSIONS

Safely staging a major sporting event

involves numerous actors, each with its

particular role, and each reliant to some

extent for the proper performance of that

role, on other actors properly performing

their roles and responsibilities. WHS laws

address these symbiotic relationships by

first imposing concurrent, overlapping, and

non-delegable WHS duties on nearly every

actor involved with organizing and staging

the event, and then requiring the holders of

these concurrent and overlapping duties to

cooperate to ensure their activities are

undertaken safely and without health risks.

Through this combination of legislative

provisions, event organizers are

encouraged to work with all actors involved

with the event to develop a framework that

facilitates the effective allocation of risk

management responsibilities amongst the

various actors by each actor’s ability to

control the activities that give rise to those

risks (Windholz, 2016).

Zemikael Getu

Sisay Mengistu

|402

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