JRSSEM 2022, Vol. 02, No. 2, 188 – 202
E-ISSN: 2807 - 6311, P-ISSN: 2807 - 6494
DOI : 10.36418/jrssem.v2i2.251 https://jrssem.publikasiindonesia.id/index.php/jrssem/index
THE STUDY OF LEARNING ORGANIZATION MODELS: A
LITERATURE REVIEW
Dian Yulia Sari
Ministry of Finance Republic Indonesia
e-mail: dian.yulia@kemenkeu.go.id
*Correspondence: dianyuliasari67@gmail.com
Submitted: 02 August 2022, Revised: 22 August 2022, Accepted: 19 September 2022
Abstract. Peter Senge’s learning organization model, “The Five Building Blocks,” initiated five
elements of learning organization, namely “personal mastery, team learning, shared vision, mental
models, and systems thinking”. Inspired by this model, several developed learning organization
models and the elements are proposed by the scholars in the last two decades in order to preserve
the needs of the change world. The aims of this study are to analyse the development of learning
organization models and the elements attached to the model. A systematic process of literature
review is implemented as the methodology of the study which critically resulted ten journals to be
investigated. According to the research, three scholars implemented the five building blocks model
from Peter Senge, while the other scholars proposed their studies with developed elements and
learning organization models. The characteristics, the readiness, the perception, and the existing
conditions of the organizations are several factors that affect the learning organization model.
While the differences in the level of how important each element in the learning organization
model is also encourages the development of learning organization model itself. Heretofore, the
Five Building Blocks model is still very relevant to be used by the scholars and become the basis of
learning organization model research in the future.
Keywords: learning organization; model; elements; characteristics; dimension.
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INTRODUCTION
A continuous improvement has
become a demand for every organization
today. Various organization are trying to
improve themselves so as not to be left
behind the development of an increasingly
advanced and globalized world. This
should be a concern for an organization to
change the “command” style to the
“participation’ style. Organization must
provide opportunities for their members to
always learn and develop so that they can
have a positive impact on the organization.
One of the strategies that must be done is
to develop a learning organization.
Learning organization is a continuous
and planned organization facilitate its
members to be able to continuously
develop and transform themselves, both
collectively and individually, in an effort to
achieve a better result and in accordance
with the perceived needs shared between
the organization and the individuals within
it, (Minister of Finance Republic Indonesia
Decree., 2018). The concept of learning
organization itself was first popularized by
Peter Senge in his book, The Fifth Discipline
(1990). According to (Senge., 1990), the
success of an organization is largely
determined by its ability to develop its
institution into a learning organization. The
book also explain that learning
organization are a place for people who
continuously improve their capacity to
create the results that are truly expected.
Ideally in a learning organization each
individual is able to develop various new
thoughts, freely express his aspiration, and
how each individual continues to learn how
to learn together. To achieve this goal,
(Senge., 1990) suggests the use of five
components of technology, namely:
“systems thinking, personal mastery,
mental models, shared vision, and team-
learning”.
Several experts also formulate the
notion of learning organization, (Pedler et
al., 1991), stated that a learning
organization means an organization that
facilitates the learning process of all its
members and continues to carry out
positive transformations. This means that
each individual can continue to learn, in line
with organizational changes for the better.
Furthermore, (Watkins and Marsick., 1993)
add that learning organizations will
continue to learn, transform, empower
communities, emphasize collaboration and
group learning process, strongly encourage
open discussion, and recognize that there
is interdependence between organizations
and individuals within them. Moreover,
(Marquardt., 1996) argues that a learning
organization is an organization that
powerfully and collectively learns and
continues to transform for the better in
collecting, managing, and using the
knowledge for organizational success.
The importance of sharing in the
context of a learning organization is not
only beneficial for the continuity of the
organization in the face of change and
uncertainty that is happening. Learning
organization is an investment. Learning
that has become a culture can encourage
individuals and organizations to increase
knowledge, competence, and improve
performance on an ongoing basis. Until the
time comes, will encourage continuous
improvement, support the achievement of
goals, enrich innovation, and the ability to
Dian Yulia Sari | 190
deal with change, (Senge.,1990)
While the objective of Learning
organization according to (Minister of
Finance Decree Republic Indonesia., 2018)
are, anticipating the accelerated change,
disruption and uncertainty at national and
global levels by creating an agile, adaptive
and innovative organization; enhancing a
collaborative, digital, creative, and
independent learning culture for all
employees; improving the competence of
reliable human resources, accountable,
competent, and ability to complete the
tasks effectively and efficiently; improving
the individual, team, and organizational
performance in achieving the vision,
mission, and the strategic objectives of the
organization; maintaining the intellectual
assets of the organization through
knowledge management; and improving
the culture of sharing knowledge both at
the individuals, teams and organizations.
The learning organization itself opens
opportunities for organizations to continue
to grow following changes in the
environment, competition, technology, and
stakeholder demands. Along the way, the
model of learning organization continues
to develop. On that basis, this study will
analyses the development of the learning
organization model implemented by the
scholars in the last two decades and the
element attached to the model.
METHODS
The study conducted a traditional
research method called literature review.
According to (Cooper., 2010), literature
review is a research that examines and
critically reviews the knowledge, the ideas,
and or findings contained in the body of
academically oriented literature, and
formulates theoretical and methodological
contributions to a certain topic.
This study analyses the development of
learning organizations models and their
elements proposed by the scholars since
the Five Building Blocks model from Peter
Senge. The search for the articles and the
journals is done through the research gate,
google search, and google scholar with the
keywords of learning organization, learning
organization models, and learning
organization elements in both Bahasa and
English. The criteria for the articles and
journals tracked include the period of the
publishing journals in the range of the last
20 years from 2002 to 2022 with; learning
organization, learning organization
models, and learning organization
elements as the research theme; and the
types of journals are in original and full text
journals.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
For the last three decades a numerous
studies of learning organization models
have come up as an essential discussion to
the scholars. The change of the elements of
learning organization has been proposed
by the scholars as a development and
improvement of the five building blocks
model pioneered by Peter Senge. The
following table of Learning Organization
Models presents several key development
of learning organization models and the
differences of the elements implemented
to the models.
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Table 1. The Learning Organization Models
The Model
The Author
LO Elements
The five building blocks
(Peter Senge, 1990)
“Personal Mastery, Team Learning, Shared
Vision, Mental Models, Systems Thinking”
The eleven characteristics
of a learning company
Pedler et al (1991)
“Internal exchange, Enabling structure,
Reward flexibility, Inter-company learning,
Informing, Learning approach to strategy,
The formative accounting and control, The
participative policy making, The boundary
workers as environmental scanners, Self-
development opportunities for all, and
Learning climate”.
Dimension of Learning
Organization
Questionnaire (DLOQ)
(Watkins and Marsick,
1993), (2003)
“Empowerment, Inquiry and dialogue,
Team learning, Continuous learning,
Strategic leadership, System connection,
and Embedded system”.
Five factors of readiness
Wick and Leon (1995)
“Planning, Leadership, Innovation,
Information dissemination, and
Implementation”.
Learning Organization’s
five indicators
(Marquardt, 1996)
“People Empowerment, Technology
Management, Learning Dynamics,
Organizational Transformation,
Knowledge Management”.
The five strategic
building blocks
Goh and Richard
(1997)
“Experimentation and rewards, Clarity of
organizational mission and vision, Team
problem-solving, Leadership commitment
and empowerment, and Effective transfer
of knowledge”.
Learning Organization
Process Survey
Udai Pareek (2003)
“Synergy, Information flow, Holistic frame,
Shared vision, Emotional maturity,
Strategic trust, Empowerment, Learning”.
The reliability and validity
of the “Organizational
Learning”
(Mets and Torokoff,
2007)
“Internal Environment and Learning, “Main
Process” for the scale of employee, “Main
Process” for the scale for managers, Shared
values, and Internal Environment, Goals
and Development”.
The Learning Security
Model
(Garvin et al, 2008)
“Admitting new concept, psychological
security, learning process, welcoming
differences, learning encouraging”.
The Learning Climate
(Jamali et al, 2008)
“Systematic employee development,
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Model
Employee participation, Learning reward
systems, Learning climate, Constant
experimentation”.
An Open Systems of
Learning Organization
Liesbsch (2011)
“Relative dynamic systems, Self-organized
in an adequate way and structure-
determined, Relative opened systems, and
Relative underdetermined systems”.
An Integrated Learning
Organization Model
(Waheed et al, 2015)
“Self-development, Innovation, Leadership
facilitation, Information sharing,
Empowerment, Collective collaboration”.
The Five Critical Elements
of learning Organization
(Shin et al, 2016)
“Empowering at all levels, gathering and
integrating external information,
establishing and communicating a clear
sense of direction and purpose,
accumulating and sharing internal
knowledge, challenging the status quo
and enabling creativity”.
Learning Organization
Management model
D’Amato et al (2016)
“Shared responsibility, Total Transparency,
Top down and bottom up approach,
People and team increasingly self-
managed, Intrinsic and based on
involvement and job quality, Creation of
learning infrastructures that facilitate
learning, Build the better context to obtain
the best people”.
A Collective
Organizational Model
(Lau et al, 2019)
“Processes, Principles, Purposes”.
The Learning
Organization Dimension
(Wetzel et al, 2019)
“Discipline, decision making, desire,
equality”.
Adaptive Learning
Organization Model
(JoshBersin, 2020)
“Leadership, Partnership, Innovation;
Intelligence, Analytics, Velocity; Agility,
Experience, Value”.
Since the first introduced by Senge in
the early 90s, numerous theories regarding
learning organization have been proposed
by organizational experts. According to
table 1 above, the five building blocks by
(Senge., 1990) is a commencement of a
learning organization model. The model
integrates five elements which include
“personal mastery, team learning, shared
vision, mental models, and systems
thinking”. It is believed that learning
organization is a place where collective
thoughts are spread, new thinking patterns
are raised, and how learning together is
being continuously developed for all
individuals in the organization (Senge.,
193 | The Study of Learning Organization Models: A Literature Review
1992).
Moreover, (Pedler, et al. 1991)
introduced a measurement instrument to
the learning organization model known as
“the eleven characteristics of a learning
company”. The eleven characteristics/
elements are “internal exchange, enabling
structure, reward flexibility, inter-company
learning, informing, learning approach to
strategy, the formative accounting and
control, the participative policy making, the
boundary workers as environmental
scanners, self-development opportunities
for all, and learning climate”. The
instruments implemented to ensure that
the company which transform into a
learning organization is on the right path.
In addition, Watkins and Marsick presented
a new model of learning organization
called “Dimension of Learning Organization
Questionnaire” (DLOQ) model. The model
comes up with seven important elements
of learning organization, namely
“Empowerment, Inquiry and dialogue,
Team learning, Continuous learning,
Strategic leadership, System connection,
and Embedded system” (Watkins and
Marsick., 2003). The DLOQ is considered as
the most extensive tools of questionnaire
to measure the learning dimensions. It is
because the questionnaire entitles the
organization to consider the way to use
and support the learning process at
organizational, team, individual, and macro
level.
The five factors of readiness, is a
learning organization model from (Wick
and Leon., 1995). The five factors are
“planning, leadership, innovation,
information dissemination, and
implementation”. Each factor has several
elements to support the transformation
process to be a learning organization. The
elements inside the factors can be
explained as follow: first, the planning;
having realistic expectations of employee,
participation of managers and employees
in planning, alignment of plans with the
vision, having measurable plans for
achieving the vision, and evaluation of
plans, processes, and progress. Second, the
leadership; collaboration in formulating the
vision, having clearly defined objectives,
awareness of performance gaps,
incorporating human resource
management into the organization’s vision,
and having clearly defined vision. Third,
innovation; risk-taking, valuing novel ideas,
having an open environment, creating
opportunities, embracing change, and
having a safe environment. Fourth,
information dissemination; accessibility of
information, free flow of information,
awareness of expectations in the internal
and external environment, sharing research
findings and evaluation results, and
informing employees about the
organization’s plan and activities. The last,
Implementation; fair distribution of
resources, fair performance evaluation,
attempting to develop and promote
scientific knowledge, valuing human
resource development and appreciating
research and learning, pragmatism, and
flexible work schedule.
According to (Marquardt., 1996),
learning organization has five indicators as
the elements, they are “people
empowerment, technology management,
learning dynamics, organizational
transformation, knowledge management”.
Furthermore, (Marquardt., 2002) affirms
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that an organization can be seen as a
learning organization if the new behavior
has been embedded in social norms and
values as a whole. Marquardt also claims
that it is essential to carry out the ten
strategies in building the learning
subsystems. That strategies are increase
employee’s intervention, use scenario
planning for learning, design self-
grooming plans, encourage and execute
systemic thinking approach, execute
systemic learning skills, expand domestic
and universal intercultural mindsets and
learning, develop modular and reusable
learning plans, increase people capability
on learning how to learn, design
development plan based on employee’s
capability, and develop organizational
dialogue.
The five strategic building blocks
model, a learning organization model by
(Goh and Richard., 1997) suggest that
strategic elements in learning organization
can be grouped into the following five
elements, namely “experimentation and
rewards, clarity of organizational mission
and vision, team problem-solving,
leadership commitment and
empowerment, and effective transfer of
knowledge”. According to (Goh and
Richard, 1997), these blocks must be
implemented by the organization to turn
into a learning organization. The next
model known as Learning Organization
process survey is proposed by (Pareek.,
2023). The model initially includes the eight
elements, namely “Synergy, Information
flow, Holistic frame, Shared vision,
Emotional maturity, Strategic trust,
Empowerment, Learning”.
Inspired by theory of the five building
blocks from Peter Senge, (Mets and
Torokoff., 2007) develop a model known as
the reliability and validity of the
“Organizational Learning”. The model
components are “Internal Environment and
Learning, “Main Process” for the scale of
employee, “Main Process” for the scale for
managers, Shared values, and Internal
Environment, Goals and Development”. The
theory is implemented to identify the
general characteristics of the learning
organization. (D’Amato et al., 2016)
proposed a learning organization model
acknowledged as learning organization
management model as a practical guidance
for becoming a learning organization.
There are seven components of the model,
namely “shared responsibility, total
transparency, top down and bottom up
approach, people and team increasingly
self-managed, intrinsic and based on
involvement and job quality, creation of
learning infrastructures that facilitate
learning, and build the better context to
obtain the best people”. The management
model enables all individuals in the
organization to be more “human” with a
change to express their emotions, passions
and also the energy.
Moreover, research discussing the
learning organization implementing
various models of learning organization
have been an important topic chosen by
the scholars. According to the literature
search process, there are ten journals
matched the criteria of this study. The
learning organization models implemented
in the ten journals are presented in the
table below.
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Table 2. The Learning Organization Models Implemented on the Journals
Number
Year
Learning Organization Elements
1
2014
Learning Organization elements implemented in this journal are based on
Peter Senge’s five diciplines, then developed by Mets and Torokoff;
The Learning Organization was tested to Turkish companies.
2
2018
Learning Organization practice implemented from the perspective of the
fifth discipline model theories from Peter Senge;
The case study was from an enterprise in GuangZhou, China.
3
2015
Learning Organization components implemented are based on the
Marquardt systematic model;
The Learning Organization analysis was implemented in a company in Iran.
4
2010
The elements of Learning Organization from Goh and Richard combined
with the LO elements from Watkins and Marsick model were implemented
to this journal;
The Learning Organization concept was reviewed from the NPOs in
Singapore
5
2018
The journal is investigated the Learning Organization characteristics based
on five principles of Peter Senge’s model;
The LO characteristics was tested to an education institution in the
prefecture of Ilia in Greece.
6
2013
The journal tested and explained the dimension of Learning Organization
from Peter Senge’s model;
The dimension of the Learning Organization was tested and viewed from
the Education Organization in Boroojerd county and the Related
Department in Iran.
7
2012
The paper adopted the Learning Organization framework with the
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elements from Watkins and Marsick and also Goh and Richard;
The gauge progress of the Learning Organization was implemented to the
non-profit human social sector of Singapore.
8
2016
The model of Learning Organization applied to this research was from
Wick and Leon Model that implemented their five factors of readiness to
become a learning organization;
The research was explored to the National Library and Archives of Iran
(NLAI) in Iran.
9
2015
The research implemented Learning Organization instruments from Udai
Pareek with the eight LO dimensions based on the combination elements
from five diciplines of Peter Senge and the Dimensions of the Learning
Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ) from Watkins and Marsick;
The model of learning organization was investigated through the research
from Indian service industry.
10
2007
The study validates the characteristics of Learning Organizations
measured with a model developed by Pedler, et al containing eleven
characteristics of Learning Organization;
The survey and the report of the analysis were developed from different
economic sectors in South Africa.
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As stated in the table above, the ten
journals have fulfilled the criteria of the
database for the research. They were
conducted in the last two decades, in
various models of learning organization.
Based on the models developed, there are
numerous elements which are also
implemented to various studies of the
scholars. Regarding to the sample of the
data, the research were conducted in
several countries which are include Turkey,
China, Iran, Singapore, Greece, India, and
South Africa. It can be seen from the table
that the research was conducted on various
types of entities.
The research conducted by (Yashoglu
et al., 2014) targeted companies in Turkey.
Yashoglu uses the five building blocks
model with the five elements embedded in
it form Peter Senge which has been
developed by (Mets and Torokoff., 2007)
namely “Internal Environment and
Learning, “Main Process” for the scale of
employee, “Main Process” for the scale for
managers, Shared values, and Internal
Environment, Goals and Development”. The
theory is implemented to identify the
general characteristics of the learning
organization. The study implemented the
model to identify the characteristics of
learning organization and to measure the
scale of the learning organization in
companies in Turkey. The result of the
study stated that the elements based on
(Mets and Torokoff., 2007) model is a
proven tool to measure a level of learning
organization with a high validity and
reliability.
The study by (Liu., 2018), (Mehrabi.,
2013) and (Panagiotopoulus et al., 2018)
implemented then model of Peter Senge
namely the five building blocks with the
elements are “Personal Mastery, Team
Learning, Shared Vision, Mental Models,
Systems Thinking”. (Liu., 2018) conducted
research on an enterprise in Guang Zhou,
China using Peter Senge theory to reveal
how this model can successfully build a
learning organization. The enterprise was
chosen for a unique talent management
system. Based on the research result, the
learning organization model in the
enterprise is a suitable model and can be
imitated as a reference. (Mehrabi et al.,
2013) also conducted a research using the
five building blocks from Peter Senge. This
research was conducted at an education
organization in Iran. The purpose of the
research is to perceive the relationship
between organizational structure and the
dimension of learning organization. The
results of the study indicate that based on
the analysis carried out, the most important
elements in the learning organization
dimension are team learning and mental
models. Furthermore, the research from
(Panagiotopoulus et al., 2018) was
conducted at an educational organization
in Greece. The reseach is also implemented
five disciplines on the theory of Peter
Senge. The aim of the study is to
investigate the teacher’s perception in the
school about the characteristics of the
learning organization in their organization.
Against the research, it was found that the
five elements of Peter Senge’s theory have
positive correlation with the learning
organization that has been running in the
organization.
Several studies implemented the
learning organization model that has been
developed, was carried out by (Hishamudin
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et al., 2010). This study combines elements
of the learning organization model from
(Goh and Richard., 1997) and elements of
the learning organization from (Watkins
and Marsick., 1993). Hishamudin et al., also
conducted research related to learning
organization in 2012 and still implemented
the similar elements as the previous
research. They are organizational learning
practices, team learning practice, individual
learning practice, leadership commitment
and empowerment, clarity of mission and
vision, effective transfer of knowledge,
experimentation and intrinsic motivation,
and team problem-solving. The study
conducted by (Hishamudin et al., 2010) and
(Hishamudin et al., 2012) raised the similar
type of entity, namely non-profit
organization in Singapore. The aim of the
research is to reveal the relationship
between the elements of learning
organization and organizational
performance. Furthermore, the research
aim is also to investigate how the learning
organization implemented in non-profit
organization in Singapore. The findings of
the study demonstrate that team-problem
solving, individual learning practice, and
organizational learning practice greatly
affect the organizational performance.
While the elements of experimentation and
intrinsic motivation, clarity of mission and
vision, organizational learning practices
and leadership commitment and
empowerment are essential in the
transformation process to become a
learning organization.
A study on learning organization was
conducted by (Villiers., 2007) using the
learning organization model from (Pedler
et al., 1991). The study was conducted on
several organizations with different
economic sectors in South Africa. The
purpose of the study is to measure the level
of implementation of the eleven
characteristics which are “internal
exchange, enabling structure, reward
flexibility, inter-company learning,
informing, learning approach to strategy,
the formative accounting and control, the
participative policy making, the boundary
workers as environmental scanners, self-
development opportunities for all, and
learning climate” (Pedler’s et al., 1991), to
the level of characteristics of learning
organization in each respondent. The result
of the study indicate that the model is a
uni-dimensional that has a high level of
reliability and is expected to be used in the
long term and scale.
The research conducted by (Daryani et
al., 2015) applied a learning organization
model from (Marquardt., 2002) with a
sample of regional company in Iran. This
research was conducted with the main
objective of measuring the dimension of
the implementation of learning
organization in the company by using
elements in the Marquardt theory. “The
level of validity and reliability of Marquardt
model has been confirmed” (Daryani et al.,
2015). The result of the research explained
that the characteristics of the learning
organization have been applied above the
average level even though there are
differences when it was viewed from
different position.
The five factors of readiness model
from (Wick and Leon., 1995) was applied by
(Neshat et al., 2015 in their research which
aims to examine the factors that influence
an organization to become a learning
199 | The Study of Learning Organization Models: A Literature Review
organization. The factors include “planning,
leadership, innovation, information
dissemination, and implementation”. The
research was conducted on the National
Library in Iran. The result of the study
describes that there are striking differences
in the application of learning organization
readiness factors in different departments
in which the strength and weaknesses of
the organization also can be seen.
The study of learning organization was
also conducted by (Budhiraja et al., 2015).
It combines the elements attached in the
learning organization model from Peter
Senge and the Dimension of Learning
Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ) model
from Watkins and Marsick, comes up as the
model developed by Udai Pareek. The
merging of the elements then creates a
learning organization model with eight
elements attached in it, namely “synergy,
information flow, holistic frame, shared
vision, emotional maturity, strategic trust,
empowerment, and learning”. This research
was conducted on the service industry in
India which aim to find a model of a
learning organization and compare it to the
existing models. In addition, this research
also aims to determine the alteration of the
determinant level of learning organization
among several types of industry. The
results of this study indicate that the
elements of the learning organization
model have existed and were previously
applied both by individuals and
organizationally, so that they can create a
learning organization. The most prominent
characteristics in these elements
correspond to the elements of the five
building blocks model from Peter Senge,
namely personal mastery, team learning,
shared vision, mental models, and systems
thinking.
CONCLUSION
In today’s world, development is
inevitability. Thus, to be able to survive in
an environment that continue to rapidly
and competitively developed, an
organization ought to discover the key to
its competitive advantage through
transforming into a learning organization.
The Five Building Blocks model by Peter
Senge is a learning organization model
initiated in the early 90’s followed-by
others developed model. This model, in the
last two decades, is still very relevant to be
used by the scholars and become the basis
of learning organization model research in
the future. However, the learning
organization model is formerly developed
following the developments of an
uncertain, complex, volatile, and
ambiguous world.
From the ten journals which were
analyzed in this study, three scholars
implemented the five building blocks
model from Peter Senge, while the other
scholars come up with the learning
organization models and the elements that
have been developed. The characteristics,
the readiness, the perception, and the
existing conditions of the organizations are
several factors that affect the learning
organization model. In addition, the
differences in the level of how important
each element in the learning organization
model is also encourages the development
of learning organization model itself.
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