JRSSEM 2021, Vol. 01, No. 11, 2027– 2037

E-ISSN: 2807 - 6311, P-ISSN: 2807 - 6494

DOI : 10.36418/jrssem.v1i11.213 https://jrssem.publikasiindonesia.id/index.php/jrssem/index

WESTERNIZATION OF MEDIEVAL EDUCATION (SOCIO-

HISTORICAL STUDIES ON THE ISLAMIC EDUCATION OF

THE OTTOMAN TURKISH)

Bambang Yuniarto

Heru Chakra Setiawan

Afif Gita Fauzi

IAIN Syekh Nurjati Cirebon, Jawa Barat, Indonesia

e-mail: bb_yunior@yahoo.co.id

, heruchakra@gontor.ac.id

, fauziafif689@gmail.com

*Correspondence: bb_yunior@yahoo.co.id

Submitted: 27 May 2022, Revised: 06 June 2022, Accepted: 15 June 2022

Abstract. The Ottoman Empire experienced a golden age during the reign of Sultan Sulaiman Al-

Qanuni (1494-1566 AD), but after his reign weakened due to advances in European science and

technology, in the 18th century the Ottoman Turks tried to restore its glory. by Westernization

known as the Reorganization of Turkey. While socio-religious at that time experienced a decline,

more than that, dynamism, creativity, progressivity and freedom of thought also decreased. This

study aims to explore the origins of the westernization movement in the history of the development

of Islamic education in terms of socio-political, socio-religious and social education. It is hoped

that a precise definition of the ideal Islamic education will be obtained that is in accordance with

the times and always provides the latest benefits for modern times. This study uses a socio-

historical approach, which seeks to uncover and analyze the transformation process of the Islamic

education system from a traditional system to a modern system. As a result, it was found that the

cause of the decline of Muslims was the thinking of the Turkish people who were shackled by

fatalism.

Keywords: ottoman empire; education; westernization.

Bambang Yuniarto, Heru Chakra Setiawan, Afif Gita Fauzi

| 2028

DOI : 10.36418/jrssem.v1i11.213 https://jrssem.publikasiindonesia.id/index.php/jrssem/index

INTRODUCTION

Islamic education has a long history

and developed along with the pace of

Islamic civilization. The arrival of Islam

ushered in a very meaningful

transformation for Arab society, especially

at that time the social conditions of Arab

society were far from civilized. Islam as

God's revelation which is a way of life to

achieve worldly welfare and ukhrawi (the

day Afterlife), can only be understood and

practiced properly through education. In

fact, the Prophet Muhammad was only sent

as an educator of mankind (Aizid, 2015).

Therefore, there is no doubt that Islamic

teachings are very closely related to

educational concepts, so Islam should be

appointed and used as a paradigm of

education science.

Throughout history, Islamic Education

has carried out several concept Islamic

education, one of which is modernization

(Rissanen, 2012), the concept of Modern

Islamic education, is definitely the steps in

renewal in understanding, interpreting and

formulating Islamic problems with a

historical reconstruction in actualizing

Islam in modern life. This movement rests

on the ideals of the idealization of Islamic

progress that was experienced by the

Islamic world during the Abbasid dynasty,

and this movement wants to achieve that

golden age with the same methodology as

that era in intellectual freedom (Hasnahwati,

2020); (Evered & Evered, 2020).

The meaning of Westernization or

linguistically can be understood as

"westernizing" is a group/reform figures

who want to imitate civilization the West as

the basis for reform. This western school

assumes that the western world at that time

had reached a high civilization as evidence

that the western nation had achieved

success in developing science and

technology (Woellert et al., 2011). They

have also left old traditions, including

religious traditions that are not in

accordance with the times.

According to Westernism's view, it was

said if you want to progress, a nation must

be oriented to the west and begin to leave

the old traditions and institutions that are

outdated because for them the old traditions

and institutions are the cause of the decline

of a nation. This movement seeks to

displace the Islamic identity of a nation with

an Islamic pattern and replace it with

western civilization. And also said If you

look at the current era, there are many

generations of a nation who are

"westernized" (Ilyas, 2014) Worse yet, this

attitude not only penetrates the socio-

cultural realm but also in the scientific

realm. Where in western science it is not in

harmony with Islam so that it can damage

the values and morals of Islamic society.

Science at this time, has been

influenced by the western world which

philosophically has adopted a secular

epistemology which denies revelation as a

science. As a result, science is antagonistic

to religion. This will clearly affect the values

and morals of the community. Whereas

Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas asserted

that Islam is a religion that has its own

original worldview and is free from various

influences from the western world.

However, in reality, westernized science has

penetrated into religious knowledge.

When rewinding the footsteps of the

Ottoman Empire, we will be carried away to

2029 | Westernization of Medieval Education (Socio-Historical Studies on the Islamic

Education of the Ottoman Turkish)

the long history of the medieval Islamic

empire which is worrying because this

dynasty is in the midst of advancing

European civilization which indirectly

intimidated the Turkish Islamic community,

which at that time was trapped in the

orthodox tradition. which is far from

advanced. Likewise, regarding the

westernization of Islamic education that is

happening now, is the root of the long

history of the Ottoman Turks as an Islamic

superpower with stagnant scientific

conditions at that time and no significant

progress in science and technology, unlike

the previous Islamic dynasty (Abbasid

dynasty). Until the early 18th century, the

Ottomans tried to restore glory by carrying

out major reforms to the royal system.

Among them Sultan Salim III (d.1807)

opened a number of Ottoman embassies in

Europe. Then Mahmud II (d.1839)

introduced various reform institutions that

were inspired by the West, including

education, military, economics and law.

This period came to be known in history as

the Reorganization period.

Various reform efforts were

continuously carried out by this dynasty

(Ottomans Turk), both from among

scholars, young people, scholars and

bureaucrats until the 20th century. There

are many social factors that led to the

reorganization of Turkey, one of which was

the rise of Europeans after the Renaissance,

which prompted the Turks to westernize

the education system. At that time, the

Turks were still using their conventional

education system, such as memorizing

classical books without understanding the

meaning and lack of scientific passion in

Turkish society, which caused Turkey to lag

far behind the Europeans.

The previous research conducted by

Siswanto in his research entitled “The Rise

of Madrasah in the Islamic World (Socio-

Historical Study of the Nizhamiyah School)”.

This type of research is descriptive, using

qualitative approach methods. The

similarity of the previous research with this

study is the types and methods of the

research approach used both using

qualitative descriptive methods and using a

historical approach, Meanwhile, the

difference between the previous study and

this study is as follows: The subject in the

previous study was the Nizamiyah school

during the Abbasid Caliphate While in this

study the object was the Islamic Education

system during the Ottoman Turk period.

therefore, this paper will lead to the

discovery of new knowledge about the

symptoms that caused the change in the

education system during the Ottoman

Turkish period. By using a socio-historical

approach, this paper will explore the origins

of the westernization movement in the

history of the development of Islamic

education in terms of socio-political, socio-

religious and socio-educational. Thus, it is

hoped that a proper picture of the ideal

Islamic education will be obtained which is

in line with the times and always provides

the latest benefits for modern times. This is

where a study of the social history of the

development of Islamic education in the

Ottoman Empire will find its significance.

METHODS

This paper uses a historical approach,

which seeks to reveal and analyze the

process of transforming the Islamic

Bambang Yuniarto, Heru Chakra Setiawan, Afif Gita Fauzi

| 2030

education system from traditional to

modern with efforts to westernize, this

process consisting of four stages (Malleson,

2021) are:

At the initial stage is a heuristic or

collecting the sources. As many sources as

possible are collected related to the

problem in the form of books and journals

that talk about related matters.

The next step, is to criticize the sources,

against all the sources that have been

obtained earlier. By criticizing this source, it

becomes a measure of the extent to which

the author's objectivity in elaborating all

the data or sources that have been

obtained.

After criticizing sources, at this stage a

synthesis is carried out using interpretation

techniques, the interpretation of facts

obtained from all documents or sources

that have been obtained. This stage

requires the prudence and integrity of the

author to avoid subjective interpretations

of other facts, in order to find scientific

conclusions or historical images.

The final step is historiography. In this

case the author tries his best to compose,

string and devote all his abilities to the

search for something in question, compile

a summary of the facts and then explain

with rational historical expressions

(Abdurrahman, 2012).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Ottoman Dynasty: The Origin And State

Of Socio-Politics

The founder of the Ottoman Turkish

Dynasty was the Oghuz who initially

inhabited the Mongol regions in the north

of the Chinese territory. Within a period of

three centuries, they moved to Turkistan,

Persia and Iraq. This kabilah converted to

Islam around the 9th century. Under the

leadership of Orthoghol. They devoted

themselves to Sultan Alaudin was Sultan

Saljuk who at that time was fighting against

the Byzantines. Thanks to the help of the

Oghuz, Sultan Alaudiin gained victory. For

the good services of this nomadic kabilah,

Alauddin gifted a piece of land in Asia

Minor bordering the Byzantines. Since then

they have continued to build their new

territory and chose the city of Syukut as the

capital.

After the death of Orthoghol in 1289

AD. the relay of leadership was continued

by his son, Ottoman. The son of Orthoghol,

whose real name was Ottoman Sultan bin

Sauji bin Artogol bin Sulaimansyah bin Kia

Alp (1299-1324 AD), is considered the

founder of the Ottoman empire. After the

Ottoman Dynasty declared independence

and plenipotentiary over what was

previously the territory of Alauddin who

was defeated by the attacks of the

Mongols.

The Ottoman Turks experienced a

golden age during the reign of sultan

Sulaiman Al-Qanuni (1494-1566 AD) at

which time the territory of this Dynasty was

absolutely large, covering mainland Europe

to Australia, Egypt, North Africa to Algeria

and Asia to Persia. Sultan Sulaiman Al-

Qanuni managed to unite his two

sovereignties, at sea and on land and

gathered his two forces, worldliness and

religion (Arar & Haj-Yehia, 2018)

But in the end, due to the weak rule

after the time of Sulaiman Al-Qanuni, as

well as outside factors, that European

advances in the field of science and

2031 | Westernization of Medieval Education (Socio-Historical Studies on the Islamic

Education of the Ottoman Turkish)

technology, which was able to create

modern machinery and equipment,

Ottoman Turk began to regress and suffer

several defeats of war against Europeans.

The military defeat of this Dynasty,

according to Abdullahi Ahmed an-Na'im

was a consequence that had to be accepted

due to the decline of religion and culture,

perversion of tradition and corruption (An-

Na'im, 2016)

So that at the beginning of the 18th

century, the Ottoman Turks tried to restore

glory by carrying out very vigorous reforms.

In fact, Sultan Salim III (1789-1807 AD)

opened a number of Ottoman embassies in

Europe. Then Sultan Mahmud II (1808-1839

AD) introduced a variety of western-

inspired reforming institutions, including

education, military, economics and law.

This period became known in history as the

period of the Reorganization of Turkey.

From the foregoing brief it can be

understood that the leaders of the

Ottoman Turks in the early days were

powerful people, so this Dynasty was able

to expand quickly and widely. As for the

cause of the success of this Dynasty, it is

because it has a brave, decisive, disciplined

spirit and obeys the rules. This is a natural

disposition inherited from their ancestors

in Central Asia as well as the jihadi

motivations taught by the Quran and

Sunnah (Zürcher, 2019)

The Renewal Movement As The Result

From Sufistic Socio-Religious Conditions

The Ottoman Turkish dynasty held two

powers, First, temporal power i.e. political

power and government symbolized by the

title of Sultan and Secondly, Spiritual power

i.e. religious power symbolized by the title

of Caliph (Khalifah). Therefore, in terms of

religion, the sultan as a ruler is very

attached to Islamic sharia. Caliph have high

authority in the state and society. The

Chaliph headed by Shakh al-Islam or Mufti

as one of the officials who have the

authority to deliver official fatwas regarding

the sultan's policy and religious problems.

Likewise, the influence of Sufism on this

dynasty developed quite rapidly. The state

of frustration that was evenly distributed in

the social life of Turkish society at that time

due to the destruction of the order of social

life due to internal and external conflicts

motivated the Ottoman Turkish people to

zuhud (abandon worldly things) and return

to God. The schools are colored with

traditional sufistic nuances, there are

Zawiyah-zawiyah and halaqah around

mosques and school that are used as ritual

sites (riyadhah) for Sufis under the

guidance of mursyid authorities. Because of

this, various riyadhah systems developed in

the Ottoman Turkish society which was

later called the sufistic order.

In this regard Fazlur Rahman (1919-

1988) described the socio-religious

conditions of the Ottoman Turkish people

in his article entitled Islam and Modernity

Transformation of Anthropology Intelectual

Tradition as follows: "... in most sufi centers

especially in Turkey, the academic

curriculum consists almost entirely of books

on sufism. In Turkey at that time there were

several special places of Methnevikhana,

where Rumi's matsnawi was the only book

taught. Furthermore, the content and work

which is largely controlled by pantheism is

sharply opposed to orthodox educational

institutions hence the emergence of a sharp

and protracted spiritual dualism between

Bambang Yuniarto, Heru Chakra Setiawan, Afif Gita Fauzi

| 2032

madrasas and halaqahs. A distinctive

feature of this phenomenon is the

abundance of sufi questions that taubat

after finding a way…”.

The socio-religious conditions that

developed in Ottoman Turkey at that time

became one of the reasons for the decline

of Islamic education. This is because the

problem of setbacks also cannot be

separated from the context of the social

dynamics of Ottoman Turkish society. An

important implication of such a situation is

that the receding and loss of scientific

traditions in the Islamic world is not like the

development of science in earlier times

(Umayyad and Abbasids). More than that,

dynamism, creativity, progressivity and

freedom of thought are receding. Society

during the Ottoman Turkish dynasty

continued to live in epistemology, starting

from the surrender of elements of society

to dynamism and freedom on concepts of

a static and orthodoctive nature, it was at

this time that the scientific torch dimmed in

Ottoman Turkish society and was only

ignited during the leadership of Sultan

Ahmed III (1703-1730 AD) and then

continued by Sultan Mehmed II (1808-1839

AD).

One of the renewal efforts made by

Sultan Ahmad III, according to Harun

Nasution (1919-1998) was known that

Ahmed III as renewal before the Modern

Period. But because of obstacles from the

clergy and the military, in the end this

renewal effort was failed. The next renewal

effort was carried out in the Modern period,

which was started by Sultan Mehmed II

(1807-1839). Which in history, Sultan

Mehmed II was the first Sultan Ottoman to

overhaul the traditions of the aristocracy,

by taking a democratic stance. He is also

known as the first Sultan in the Ottoman

dynasty to unequivocally distinguish

between religious affairs and world affairs.

According to Tewfiq Fikret (1867-1915), one

of the modernist figures of Turkey in the

field of education, the main cause of the

decline of Muslims at that time was due to

the thinking of Turkish society which was

shackled by the idea of fatalism (the

theological tradition that placed humans as

beings who did not have the ability and

freedom to do an act) (Koskenniemi, 2019).

Another opinion of Dr. Abdullah Cevdet,

according to him, the Ottoman dynasty

that needs to be changed is not its system

of government or its Sultans but its social

system. According to him, the weakness of

the Ottoman dynasty and the Muslims lies

in the judiciary, laziness, an Extremely

strong belief in superstition, as well as

being too obedient to the "ignorant clerics"

all of whom are considered Islamic

teachings (Eka, 013)

Westernization: Efforts To Renew

Islamic Education

Educational institutions during the

Turkish period of Ottoman were first

founded by Sultan Orkhan (1326-1359).

The teaching system developed is to

memorize the content of classical Book

(matan-matan) even though students do

not understand the meaning, such as

memorizing matan Taqrib, matan Sultan,

matan al-Jurumiah, matan Alfiah, and

others. The students learned his sharah

(explanation or elaborating of the content

book) after memorizing the matan.

Meanwhile, Islamic science such as fiqh,

tafsir, kalam and others have not

2033 | Westernization of Medieval Education (Socio-Historical Studies on the Islamic

Education of the Ottoman Turkish)

experienced development. Most Ottoman

rulers tended to be fanatical and taqlid

towards one school and even they opposed

another (Zürcher, 2019).

Seeing the condition of the Ottoman

Turkish dynasty society at that time which

was full of anxiety, this is in line with the

opinion of Hujair AH Sanaky in his writing

Tracing the Paradigm of Islamic Education:

An Effort Towards an Empowering

Education, it said: "Along with the decline of

Islam, especially after the fall of the Abbasids

in Baghdad in 1258 AD, education in the

Islamic world also suffered a setback and

jumud-an. Thus, education is no longer

capable of being a 'means of maturing' the

people (Sanaky, (2016).

The same was said by Fazlur Rahman

about the socio-educational state of the

Ottoman Turk people in the middle ages,

he revealed: "Education becomes nothing

more than a means of defending and

preserving traditional values from the threat

that will result in the collapse of Islamic

traditions, in particular the 'standards' of

Islamic morality. What is feared is that

education will no longer be able to become

a process of intellectualization that

reconstructs the paradigm (mindset) of

students through continuous interpretation

with various disciplines according to the

times. As a result, Islamic education carries

out a process of self-isolation so that Islamic

education is finally marginalized and to the

development of knowledge and technology

(Muhammad et al., 2021)."

The Ottoman Turkish as a major Islamic

dynasty born after the two superpower

Islamic dynasties previously (Umayyad and

Abbasid). Turkish experienced a time when

its opponents i.e. western nations, made

progress, especially in terms of civilization

and science, this was certainly not

experienced by the previous two Islamic

dynasties before which at that time the

western nations were in a dark age, caused

by the church authorities who curbed them

to stay away from science and rational

civilization, it can be concluded that the

Ottoman Turkish was the first dynasty to

hold a renewal especially in the field of

education in the early 17th century. As

previously explained, the reason for the

renewal of Islamic education began with

the defeats of the Ottoman dynasty in the

war with Europeans. In particular, the

defeat of the Turkish army in the battle near

Vienna (1699 AD) which became the

beginning of his defeat and had a major

impact on the decline of the Ottoman Turks

in the later years.

One of the efforts to preserve Sultan

Ahmed III (1703-1730) in the field of

education is to build and create

educational institutions that teach sciences

that are tailored to the needs of society,

nation and state. This idea of renewal in the

field of education is the result of the

reflection of the Ottoman Turkish society

which at that time was lagging behind in

terms of knowledge and technology. This

then fostered a new attitude and spirit in

the Ottoman Turkish to be more prudent

and wise towards the existence of Western

nations. And to regard the West is no

longer regarded as an enemy to be

shunned. According to Sultan Ahmed III he

ever said: “if Muslims want to make

progress, to catch up with Islam from the

West, they must be able to appreciate and

be willing to cooperate with Western

nations”.

Bambang Yuniarto, Heru Chakra Setiawan, Afif Gita Fauzi

| 2034

Renewal continued to be carried out,

especially during the sultanate of Mehmed

II (1808-1839), a renewal that made the

West the main idea that eventually led to

the massive adoption of all Western-style

legal, political, economic, and educational

devices to be applied in the Ottoman

Turkish Dynasty. This is what eventually

grew the Westernism movement in Turkey.

This westernization effort arises because

the Islamic state is no longer seen as having

advantages coupled with the social

conditions of the people who have been

affected by Western Modernism so that it

closes and forgets the glory of the Islamic

past.

The view of the westernism of the

Ottoman Turkish Dynasty was actually not

only in the field of education, but

encompassed the fields that influenced the

Ottoman Turkish society at the time, as

explained by Tuefik Fikret and Abdullah

Cevdet as figures of Turkish westernism in

the 18th century suggesting that the

intention of the westernization movement

pursued by the Ottoman Turks that is, a

complete mental transformation through

the process of discarding the old system

(the Islamic tradition that understands

fatalism) and replacing it with the Western

system (Jongerden, 2012). Among these

views are: First, the cause of Turkey's

decline is seen from the socio-thought of

Asian society, its institutions and traditions

are weak as well as its morals and mentality.

Such mental and moral weaknesses were

caused by the sharia that restricted the lives

of the Ottoman Turks (Arslanbenzer, 2020).

By assuming the only solution is to hold

secularization (separating the state from

religious authority). Second, religious

renewal was to oppose the bigotry of

traditional Turkish clerics and stay away

from the order of sufism which at that time

was widely embraced by the Ottoman

Turkish people, this is considered by the

Ottoman Turkish people who adhere to

westernism as a source of decline, so there

is a need for westernization efforts by

adopting a western-style Modern Islamic

education system by separating between

religious science and Western-style

modern science so that it is expected to

produce Turkish scholars who have a

modern view of not traditional fanatics.

Third, economic renewal, namely applying

the western economic system in the

Ottoman Turkish dynasty such as

capitalism, individualism and liberalism.

The Turkish people of Ottoman have always

been considered to have adhered to

traditions that have the understanding of

fatalism. Fourth, the renewal of state

institutions, by separating state authority

from religious authority. Thus fostering a

view of secularism in the Turkish

government of Ottoman. Fifth, the renewal

of the family, where turkey's decline was

due to the low status and position of

women, women should be aligned with

men, abolish the polygamous system and

allow women to remove their veils. Sixth,

the renewal of education is to provide the

content of modern science curricula at all

types and levels of education. Religious

teaching must be kept away from

superstition (irrational) and emphasize

world hood greater than ignorance (Kia,

2017).

The efforts of this process of

westernization reached its climax at the

time of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk at the

2035 | Westernization of Medieval Education (Socio-Historical Studies on the Islamic

Education of the Ottoman Turkish)

beginning of the 19th century, Mustafa

Kemal announced to the audience of the

Ottoman Turkish Society of the time that

Sultan Mehmed VI (1918-1926) in Istanbul

had been under allied rule, Then he

established a counter-government in

Anatolia and say "the independence of the

country is in a state of danger, the Turkish

people must try to free the homeland from

foreign powers", Sultan Mehmed VI at that

time was considered not to run the

government so soon Mustafa Kemal

convened a congress to dismiss Mehmed

VI from the post of Sultan. Kemal's ultimate

goal with reforms in the form of

westernization is to bring the Turks to

march together with Western civilization.

Mustafa Kemal is known as the Father of

the Turkish People with the nickname

Ataturk, and he also got the nickname

Ghazi. Mustafa Kemal's series of renewal

policies are detailed in: Nationalism,

Secularism and Westernism.

CONCLUSIONS

After examining the westernization of

medieval education focused on the

Ottoman Empire, it can be concluded as

follows: first, the Ottoman Empire

experienced a golden age during the reign

of Sultan Sulaiman Al-Qanuni (1494-1566

AD) which at that time was the territory of

the Sultanate of Islam. It is very broad,

covering mainland Europe to Australia,

Egypt, North Africa to Algeria and Asia to

Persia. Sultan Sulaiman Al-Qanuni

succeeded in uniting his two sovereigns, at

sea and on land and gathering his two

powers, worldly and religious. But in the

end, because of the weak government after

Sulaiman Al-Qanuni's reign, as well as

external factors, namely the progress of

Europe in the fields of science and

technology. Second, the socio-religious

conditions that developed in Ottoman

Turkey at that time became one of the

reasons for the decline of Islamic

education. This is because the problem of

setbacks cannot be separated from the

context of the social dynamics of the

Ottoman Turks. The important implication

of a situation like this is that the scientific

tradition in the Islamic world is getting less

and less, unlike the development of science

in the previous period (Umayyad and

Abbasid). More than that, the dynamism,

creativity, progressiveness and freedom of

thought are decreasing. The main cause of

the decline of Muslims at that time was

because the thoughts of the Turkish people

were shackled by the notion of fatalism,

namely the flow of theology that placed

humans as creatures who did not have the

ability and freedom to do an act. Third, the

renewal of making the west an idea

emerged in the reign of the Sultanate of

Mahmud II (1808-1839) which ultimately

led to the massive adoption of all Western-

style legal, political, economic and

educational instruments to be applied in

the Ottoman Empire. This is what

eventually grew the Westernism movement

in Turkey. This westernization effort arose

because the Islamic state was no longer

seen as having advantages, coupled with

the social conditions of the people who had

been influenced by Western Modernism,

thus closing and forgetting the past glory

of Islam. And the peak of this climax of

westernization was during the reign of

Mustafa Kemal by bringing up a series of

Bambang Yuniarto, Heru Chakra Setiawan, Afif Gita Fauzi
 
                                               | 2036 
reform  policies  which  were  detailed  in: 
Nationalism, Secularism and Westernism. 
 
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